Le livre de Martin J. Bollinger permet de découvrir un sujet ignoré : le transport maritime des condamnés au Goulag durant l'époque stalinienne. Ils furent plus d'un million à être envoyés vers la Kolyma, à l'est de la Sibérie, entre 1932 et 1953. Un seul moyen de transport était possible : les bateaux spécialement aménagés, masqués aux puissances occidentales qui bien souvent les avaient procurés à l'URSS, voire entretenus pendant la guerre. Dès l'embarquement, les condamnés connaissaient l'horreur des camps avant même d'y être parvenus. L'auteur détaille le fonctionnement du Goulag, cite de nombreux témoignages et étudie chacun des navires qui participèrent à cette déportation.

Between 1932 and 1953, a fleet of ordinary cargo ships was pressed into extraordinary service to relocate approximately one million forced laborers to the Soviet Gulag in Kolyma, in far northeastern Siberia. The most infamous gulag in Soviet Union was accessible only by sea and this transport of people took a devastating toll on humans lives. Bollinger details this tragic saga using firsthand testimony from those involved in the operation and material from both American and Russian archives and examines how much Washington knew about the use of American ships under Stalin.

Notes

Préface 
[@N]. Stalin‘s Arctic Disaster [video] (Toronto: CineNova, 1997).
2. For example, some years before, and to much international approval, the Soviet Union had rescued the survivors of the airship Italia after it crashed in the Arctic. The rescue was part of a multinational initiative that included the United States.

Chapter 1: Here Stones Cry
1. The account of the loss of Indigirka is taken from several sources. These include a contemporary newspaper article: “700 Believed Dead on Russian Vessel,” New York Times, 14 December 1939, 14. Firsthand testimony from a survivor is quoted in Vladimir Petrov, Soviet Gold: My Life as a Slave Laborer in the Siberian Mines (New York: Farrar, Straus, 1949), 403–407. Additional material, including another survivor’s testimony, is available from the papers of a December 1998 conference organized by the Far Eastern Marine Academy and Primorskje Branch of the Russian writers Union in Vladivostok: V.P. Bolotov, ed., “Документы о Гибели Парохода Индигирка в Районе п.Саруфуцу (о.Хоккайдо) в 1939 году [Documents about the destruction of the steamship Indigirka in the area of Sarufutsu (off Hokkaido) in 1939]” (1998), www.vld.ru/ppx/Indigir/Docs.htm (December 2002). The topic is covered in I. Muromov, Сто Великих Кораблекрушений [A hundred great shipwrecks] (Moscow: Veche, 1999), 356–59. Another source is a semifictional book by Lev Kniazev, У Врат Блаженства [At the gates of bliss], www.vld.ru/ppx/Knyazev/Blazh.htm (December 2002). Another account, but one without any reference to a Gulag connection, is in Petr Osichanskii, П.П. Куянцев: Я Бы Снова Выбрал Море . . . [P.P. Kuyantsev: I would again choose the sea . . .] (Vladivostok: Far Eastern Association of Sea Captains, 1998), 57–59. This is a compilation of interviews with P.P. Kuyantsev, a merchant captain in the Soviet Union in the 1930s. One of the most complete versions has been prepared by Teruyuki Hara of the University of Hokkaido: インディギルカ号の悲劇-1930年代のロシア極東 [The Indigirka tragedy: The Russian Far East in the 1930s] (Tokyo: Chikuma Shobo, 1993).
2. Petrov, 404.
3. The “white stains” reference is from the captain’s testimony before the subsequent investigative panel.
4. William J. Spahr, Zhukov: The Rise & Fall of a Great Captain (Novato, Calif.: Presidio Press, 1993), 29.
5. Hara, 12.
6. Ibid., 18.
7. “Here Stones Cry,” by Oleg Matseev.
8. Immigration and Naturalization Service, “Immigration to the United States” (2001), www.ins.usdoj.gov/graphics/aboutins/statistics/300.htm (December 2002). This was admittedly a slow period for U.S. immigration.

Chapter 2: The Labor Camps at the End of the World 
1. Vladimir Dinets, “Hitchhiking to Oimyakon and Beyond” (1999), www.hotcity.com/~vladimir/kolyma.htm (December 2002).
2. David Y. Dallin and Boris I. Nicolaevsky, Forced Labor in Soviet Russia (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1947), 108.
3. Michael Jakobson, Origins of the GULAG (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1993), 130.
4. Dallin and Nicolaevsky, 113.
5. Timothy A. Taracouzio, Soviets in the Arctic (New York: Macmillan, 1938), 121. Taracouzio actually refers to Narkomvod as the agency, but this was not formed until it was separated from its parent agency, NarkomPut’.
6. David Nordlander, Capital of the Gulag: Magadan in the Early Stalin Era, 1929–1941 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1997), 34, 46.
7. Dallin and Nicolaevsky, 114.
8. M.I. Khlusov, The Economics of the Gulag and Its Part in the Development of the Soviet Union in the 1930s: A Documentary History (Lewiston, N.Y.: Edwin Mellen Press, 1999), 22. The specific reference is from “Decision of the Central Committee of the Communist Party: About Kolyma,” November 11, 1931.”
9. “Постановление № 516 Совета Труда И Обороны 13 Ноября 1931 Г. [Council of Labor and Defence, decision 516, November 13, 1931],” www.gulag.ru/page/doc/doc3.htm (December 2002).
10. There is some confusion regarding the words represented by the acronym “Dal’stroi,” at least upon its formation in 1931. No formal definition appears in the official Soviet decrees of the time Dal’stroi was formed. Most authors write that when formed “Dal’stroi” stood for “Far Eastern Construction Administration” or “Far Eastern Construction Trust.” However, others, including David Nordlander and John McCannon, write that “Dal’stroi” when formed actually stood for “Far Northern Construction Trust.” See Nordlander, 86, and John McCannon, Red Arctic: Polar Exploration and the Myth of the North in the Soviet Union, 1932–1939 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 7. In the late 1930s the acronym was formally linked in official documents to the phrase “Main Administration for Construction in the Far North” (Главное управление строителЬство ДалЬнего Севера).
11. Dallin and Nicolaevsky mistakenly identify the individual as Reingold Berzin, an error that continues to be repeated in later years. See, for example, Dallin and Nicolaevsky, 116, and Jakobson, 130.
12. R.H. Bruce Lockhart, British Agent (New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1933), 314.
13. Gordon Brooke-Shepard, Iron Maze: The Western Secret Services and the Bolsheviks (London: Macmillan, 1998), 91–115. Berzin is therefore almost certainly the only Dal’stroi commander to have been featured as a character in a theatrical production, the Reilly, Ace of Spies television serial.
14. Nordlander, 82.
15. Jakobson, 119–20.
16. Nordlander, 79, 87.
17. Ibid., 96.
18. Roy Medvedev, Let History Judge: The Origins and Consequences of Stalinism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1989), 508.
19. Varlam Shalamov, Kolyma Tales (London: Penguin Books, 1994), 368–69.
20. Thomas Sgovio, Dear America (New York: Partners’ Press, 1979), 139. 
21. Roy Medvedev, 509.
22. Robert Conquest, Kolyma: The Arctic Death Camps (New York: Viking Press, 1978), 219–20.
23. Silvester Mora, Kolyma: Gold and Forced Labor in the USSR (Washington, D.C.: Foundation for Foreign Affairs, 1949), 1.
24. Nordlander, 255.
25. Ibid., 261. Other sources suggest that he was executed. See, for example, Thomas Sgovio in Dear America (New York: Partners’ Press, 1979), 154. 
26. Mora, 2. The identity of ships in 1940 is provided by Marion Sloma, “Lasciate Ogni Speranza,” www.najmici.org/kolyma/ksiazka11.htm (December 2002).
27. See, for example, Sylvester Mora and Piotr Zwierniak, Sprawiedliwość Sowiecka [Soviet justice] (Włochy, 1945). See also Dark Side of the Moon (London: Faber and Faber, 1946).
28. Central Intelligence Agency, Recent Developments in The Soviet Arctic, CIA/SC/RR 82 (October13, 1954), www.foia.ucia.gov (Washington, D.C.: Office of Research and Reports, December 2002). A formerly top secret report declassified in 1999.
29. Data on Kolyma gold production is from A.I. Shirokov, “Первое Десятилетие ‘Дальстроя’ [First decade of Dal’stroi],” www.gulag.ru/page/histori/1ten.htm (December 2002). Data on world production of gold is from the Chamber of Mines of South Africa, “Estimated Western World Gold Production (1887–1991)” (2002), www.bullion.org.za/Level3/Economics&Stats/Goldmindata.htm#estimated (December 2002).
30. I.D. Batsaev, “Колымская Гряда Архипелага Гулага, Заключенные [The Kolyma range of the Gulag archipelago],” Исторические Аспекты Северо-Востока России: Экономика, Образование, Колымский Гулаг [Historical aspects of Russia’s northeast: Economics, formation of the Kolyma Gulag]” (1996): 50. The Batsaev data are cited in Stephen G. Wheatcroft, “Victims of Stalinism and the Soviet Secret Police: The Comparability and Reliability of the Archival Data—Not the Last Word,” Europe/Asia Studies 51:2 (1999): 315. Batsaev also data match data presented by Shirokov.

Chapter 3: Development of the Gulag Fleet 
1. John Harbron, Communist Ships and Shipping (London: Adlard Coles, 1962), 140.
2. The rate of fleet expansion is based on records of ships in the Soviet merchant fleet at various points in time. Data on ships from 1940 and 1945 were obtained from Soviet Merchant Ships 1945–1968 (Homewell, Havant, Hampshire: Kenneth Mason, 1969). Data for 1939 were obtained from Roger W. Jordan, The World’s Merchant Fleets 1939: The Particulars and Wartime Fates of 6,000 Ships (London: Chatham, 1999). Data for 1935 were based on Lloyd’s Register of Shipping: 1935–36 (London: Lloyd’s Register of Shipping, 1936). Supplemental data on many ships were obtained from Jürg Meister, Soviet Warships of the Second World War (London: Macdonald and Jane’s, 1977).
3. Habron, 140.
4. Soviet Merchant Ships 1945–1968, 227.
5. John McCannon, Red Arctic: Polar Exploration and the Myth of the North in the Soviet Union, 1932–1939 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 6.
6. Derek Watson, Molotov and Soviet Government: Sovnarkom, 1930–41 (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1996), 142.
7. D.M. Long, The Soviet Merchant Fleet: Its Growth, Strategy, Strength and Weaknesses 1920–1999 (London: Lloyd’s of London Press, 1986), 11.
8. Watson, 152.
9. McCannon, 37.
10. Ibid. However, the merchant fleet owned by Glavsevmorput was never very large. Ships directly owned by Glavsevmorput included several built specially for Arctic service: Chelyuskin, acquired from Copenhagen in 1933 and lost in 1934; Dejnev, built in Lenningrad in 1937; two tankers acquired from Japan, Nenets and Yukagir; and the Levaneskiy, built in 1940 but not delivered for Arctic service until 1946. Other ships transferred to Glavsevmorput shortly after its creation include Makarov, Davydov, Dobrynia Nikitich, and Truvor.
11. Linda Trautman, “The Fall of the Commissariat of Ice 1935–1938,” October 18, 2000, 6, note 13. Paper presented to the Soviet Industrialisation Project Series, University of Birmingham. Quoted with permission.
12. Watson, 139–40.
13. McCannon, 172.
14. Meister, 277.

Chapter 4: Prisoner Transport Operations 
1. Epigraph: William Barr, “First Convoy to the Kolyma: The Soviet Northeast Polar Expedition, 1932–33,” Polar Record 19:123 (1979): 563.
2. David Y. Dallin and Boris I. Nicolaevsky, Forced Labor in Soviet Russia (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1947), 117.
3. Aleksandr G. Kozlov, “От Истории Колымских Лагерей: 1932–37 [From the history of the Kolyma camps: 1932–37],” Краеведческие Записки [Notes of the Museum of Regional History] (1991): 61–91.
4. Robert Conquest, Kolyma: The Arctic Death Camps (New York: Viking Press, 1978), 218. Conquest estimates that one-third of the initial batch of prisoners perished.
5. David Nordlander, Capital of the Gulag: Magadan in the Early Stalin Era, 1929–1941 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1997), 101.
6. Victor Kravchenko, I Choose Justice (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1950), 290–91. Kravchenko relays the experience of passenger Ivan Krevsoun.
7. This conclusion is based on the monthly data for arrivals to the Kolyma camp during 1932. In most months during the shipping season that year, prisoner arrivals are in multiples of a thousand or 1,500. In other months they are in multiples of 150, the same number as on the initial voyage of the Sakhalin. Also, according to Ivan Krevsoun, he was one of 1,500 convicts aboard Svirstroi in 1932. See Kravchenko, 290.
8. Conquest, Kolyma: The Arctic Death Camps, 222.
9. Kozlov, 70–78.
10. Barr, 563. There is potential for confusion regarding ships named Anadyr. The ship described here was a new ship, built two years before in the Baltic ship works in Leningrad. Another Gulag ship, Dekabrist, was named Anadyr, but was renamed in the early 1920s well before the new Anadyr was built. The first records of Dekabrist having been used in the Gulag fleet do not occur until around 1940.
11. Conquest, Kolyma: The Arctic Death Camps, 222. Conquest also places the date as 1933, but this is likely a mistake, as this historic voyage was well documented.
12. I.D. Batsaev, “Колымская Гряда Архипелага Гулаг, Заключенные [Kolyma range of the Gulag archipelago],” Исторические Аспекты Северо-Востока России: Экономика, Образование, Колымский Гулаг [Historical aspects of Russia’s Northeast: Economics, formation of the Kolyma Gulag])” (1996): 50. The Batsaev data are cited in Stephen G. Wheatcroft, “Victims of Stalinism and the Soviet Secret Police: The Comparability and Reliability of the Archival Data—Not the Last Word,” Europe/Asia Studies 51:2 (1999): 315.
13. Kozlov, 78.
14. Aad Schol, Koninklijke Nederlandsche Stoomboot-Maatschappij [The Royal Netherlands Steamship Company] (Alkmaar: De Alk bv., 1998), 53–55.
15. There is opportunity for confusion arising out of the ship Felix Dzerzhinsky. A Felix Dzerzhinsky was built in Leningrad but was renamed Ural in 1937 at the same time as the new Felix Dzerzhinsky was added to the Gulag fleet. This new ship, a converted British cable layer, was much larger and perhaps considered a more fitting testimonial to the founder of the NKVD, operator of these ships. The ship renamed Ural continued in merchant use until converted to an auxiliary minelayer in 1940.
16. As discussed in a later chapter, this outbreak corresponded with the presence of U.S. warships in Vladivostok Harbor, which may have forced a suspension of prisoner shipments.
17. Nadezhda Surovtseva, “Vladivostok Transit,” in Till My Tale Is Told, ed. Simeon Vilensky (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999), 184. Surovtseva mistakenly reports Kulu as Kula. (There are no records of a Soviet merchant ship by the name Kula operating in that era.)
18. “Кровью Омытое Советское Золото [Blood-washed Soviet gold],” Социалистический Вестник [Socialist bulletin] 21–22 (December 10, 1945), 579–80. An interview with an anonymous sailor in the Soviet Union.
19. Department of the Navy, Office of Naval Intelligence, “Soviet Merships in Pacific—Index of,” July 1, 1944, Navy Department Intelligence Report FT-49-441, folder MR450 (7): Location of Russian Ships 1943–1945, Map Room File, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library.
20. Conquest, Kolyma: The Arctic Death Camps, 221. However, Conquest also makes the point that the primary data on which homeport information is based (Lloyd’s Register of Shipping) is often inaccurate in its updating of information of Soviet merchant ships during these years.
21. Alla Paperno, Тайны и История: Ленд-Лез Тихий Океан [Secrets and history: Lend-Lease Pacific Ocean] (Moscow: Terra-Book Club, 1998), 223.
22. Tables 1 and 2 identify sources of firsthand evidence on the operation of Gulag transport ships over the period from 1932 to 1952.  The time period is divided into sections:  Initial years, Core Fleet years, Pre-War Surge years, World War II, Post-War Surge years and Final years.  Where a firsthand account exists of a specific ship being used in a specific year, initials corresponding to the source of that account have been entered into the appropriate cell.  The initials correspond to first-hand sources as indicated below.  Where information other than a firsthand account indicates a ship was used in a given year, the corresponding cell has been shaded.  
AG: A.V. Gorbatov, Years Off My Life (New York: W.W. Norton, 1964), 124-126.
AS: Aleksandr I. Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago: 1918-1956 (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1998), vol. 1, 581-2.
BD: Memorial (Kursk), “Джафарова Берта Самойловна [Dzhafarova Berta Samoblovna],” www.memorial.krsk.ru/martirol/dj_dl.htm (December 2002).
BL: Sakharov Center, “Лесниака  Бориса Николаевича [Lesnyak Boris Nicolaevich],” <http://www.sakharov-center.ru/adcs/bio/99.htm> (July 2001).
CK: Sylvester Mora and Piotr Zwierniak, Sprawiedliwość Sowiecka [Soviet justice] (Włochy, 1945), 213.  This book contains testimony of a Polish prisoner identified only as “C.K.”
DA: Memorial (Tomsk), “Есть люди нелегкой судьбы ... [There Are People of Hard Destiny…],” <http://www.memorial.tomsk.ru:8100/memo/lud/ade.htm> (August 2001).  This is a biography of Daniel Egorovich Alina.
EG: Evgenia Semyonovna Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1967)
EL: Elinor Lipper, Eleven Years in Soviet Prison Camps (Chicago:  Henry Regnery Company, 1951), 92-4.
IK: Victor Kravchenko, I Choose Justice (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1950), 288-91.  Kravchenko relays the story of Ivan Krevsoun, a passenger aboard Svirstroi who also witnessed Volkhovstroi and Shaturstroi.
IP: Zhores A. Medvedev, "Stalin and the Atomic Gulag," Spokesman Books (2001): 105, www.spokesmanbooks.com/spokesman/spksmn_69.htm (December 2002).  This article cites an unpublished letter from I.P. Samokhvalov.
GL: Elena Glinka, “The Big Kolyma Streetcar,” Russian Life 31:3 (March 1998): 40.
GN: Nadezhda Grankina, “ Notes by Your Contemporary”, Till My Tale Is Told, ed. Simeon Vilensky (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999), 138-39.
KA: Sylvester Mora and Piotr Zwierniak, Sprawiedliwość Sowiecka [Soviet justice] (Włochy, 1945).  The book reports on the personal testimony of a passenger identified only as “K.A.”
KO: E.E. Starobinskij, “Менеджмент и психология в бизнесе: Королев С.П. [Management and psychology in business:  Korolev, S.P.]” (2001), <http://www.ukrinter.com/ssart_board_view.asp?ID=17&MID=4> (January 2002).
LG: “Восстание троцкистов на Колыме [Troskyite insurrection in Kolyma],” www.gulag.ru/page/zk/v_Trozk/v_trozk.htm (December 2002).  Manuscript detailing the transport of L.I. Girshik to the Kolyma Gulag.
LR: Larissa Ratushnaya, “Этюды О Колымских Днях [Essays about days in Kolyma]” (1999), www.art.uralinfo.ru/LITERAT/Ural/Ural_7_99/Ural_07_99_08.htm (December 2002).
MS: Michael Solomon, Magadan (New York: Vertex, 1971), 84-8 and 92-7.
NS: Nadezhda Surovtseva, “ Vladivostok Transit,” Till My Tale Is Told, ed. Simeon Vilensky (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999), 184.
NV: “Военнопленные [Military prisoners],” Невское Время [Neva times], November 5, 1998, www.pressa.spb.ru/newspapers/nevrem/arts/nevrem-1843-art-14.html (December 2002).
ON: Memorial (Kursk), “Сообщение Юстины Николаевны Нагляк [Nikolaevich Naglyak Ustina’s message],” www.memorial.krsk.ru/svidet/mnagl.htm (December 2002).
RL: Raul Fumagali, “My Polish Friend: Amazing Life and Adventures,” www.thelatinmass.com/lopacki.html (December 2002).  This manuscript relays the experiences of Richard Lopacki in the Kolyma camps.
SG: Novokuznetsk City Study of Local Lore Museum, “Сергеев Александр Григорьевич [Sergey Alexander Grigor’evich]” (1995), www.kuzbass.ru/nkz/stalinsk/sergeev.htm (December 2002).
SK: Stanislaw J. Kowalski, “White Auschwitz of Kolyma,” www.gulag.hu/white_auschwitz.htm (December 2002).
SL: Marion Sloma, “Lasciate Ogni Speranza,” www.najmici.org/kolyma/ksiazka11.htm (December 2002).
SO: Memorial (Kursk), “Сообщение Михаила Николаевича Соболева [Michael Nikolaevicha Soboleva’s message],” www.memorial.krsk.ru/svidet/mnsobol.htm (December 2002).  This is the biography of Nikolai Fyodorovich Soboleva.
SV: “Биография Нины Владимировны Сароевы (Biography of Nina Vladimirovna Saroeva),”<http://www.sakharov-center.ru/adcs/bio/98.htm> (January 2001).
TL: Zhores A. Medvedev, "Stalin and the Atomic Gulag," Spokesman Books (2001): 105, www.spokesmanbooks.com/spokesman/spksmn_69.htm (December 2002).  
TS: Thomas Sgovio, Dear America (New York, Partners’ Press Inc., 1979), page 138. 
VN: A.G. Kozlov, “Кого Карал НКВД? [Who Punished the NKVD]” <http://www.kolyma.ru/magadan/history/repres.shtml> (January 2002).  This citation refers to Vasili Antonovich Noblin and places the date as July 1931.  However, this is likely a mistake as the first shipments did not arrive until 1932.
VP: Vladimir Petrov, Soviet Gold: My Life as a Slave Laborer in the Siberian Mines (New York: Farrar, Straus, 1949), 148-157, 403-407.
VS: Varlam Shalamov, Kolyma Tales (London: Penguin Books, 1994), 175
YM: Yuri Illarionovich Moiseenko, “Поэзия Каторги [Poetry Katorgi],” www.MTU-NET.ru/rayner/avtorskaja/poes_katorgi11.htm (December 2002).
23. There is some evidence to suggest that both Kolyma and Sovietskaya Gavan served nonetheless in some capacity with Dal’stroi. Historian John McCannon makes reference to a fleet of seven oceangoing ships operated by Dal’stroi, five of which are those identified by Conquest. For example, at 1,528 gross tons, Kolyma was a small ship, only one-sixth the size of Felix Dzerzhinsky. Given the relatively large size of the ships in the core Dal’stroi fleet—an average of 6,800 gross tons—the much smaller Kolyma seems out of place.
24. Terrance Armstrong, The Northern Sea Route: Soviet Exploration of the North East Passage (London: Syndics of the Cambridge University Press, 1952), 24.
25. Lloyd’s Register of Shipping: 1935–36 (London: Lloyd’s Register of Shipping, 1936).
26. Peter Horensma, The Soviet Arctic (London: Routledge, 1991), 56.
27. Paperno. The captains of Dalstroi, Dzhurma, and Felix Dzerzhinsky were also arrested, and the first two were shot. 
28. Conquest, Kolyma: The Arctic Death Camps, 47–48.
29. Aleksandr I. Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago: 1918-1956 (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1998), vol. 1, 535. The individual quoted possibly overestimated the number of prisoners being moved each month.
30. Gakkel’, “Арктическая Навигация 1937 Года [Arctic Navigation 1937],” Проблемы Арктика [Arctic Problems] 1 (1938): 117–34. Given the routing, it is unlikely this specific voyage was in support of Gulag operations.
31. McCannon, 172. NarkomVodTrans was also affected by the changes. N.M. Ianson, the former director of NarkomVodTrans and later deputy head of Glavsevmorput, was himself arrested in the 1937 purges and sentenced to death.
32. Dallin and Nicolaevsky, 137. There is potential for confusion of Komsomolsk with Komsomol, another Soviet merchant ship. Komsomol was built in 1932 in the Soviet Union and sunk at sea in December 1936 by Nationalist forces during the Spanish Civil War. It was employed in shipping cargo to Kolyma in the early 1930s, but there are no records of its having carried forced laborers. The Komsomolsk was built in 1936 in the United Kingdom as a specialized Arctic timber carrier and is the one referred to here.
33. Paperno, 229–30.
34. The exact number may never be known, but an analysis of Soviet merchant ships operating in 1939 and their subsequent fates indicates that at least sixty of these ships were lost in 1941, another forty in 1942, and about twenty in 1943. The actual number is probably much higher.
35. Material about Lend Lease in the following paragraphs is from Robert Huhn Jones, The Roads to Russia: United States Lend-Lease to the Soviet Union (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1969).
36. Office of Chief of Naval Operations, ONI-208R: Russian Merchant Vessels (Washington, D.C.: Intelligence Division, December 20, 1942). As described in the appendices, Dekabrist was sunk by German Ju-88 aircraft of unit I/KG30 on November 4, 1942, during Operation FB, the disastrous attempt to send merchant ships to Russia without escort. Kiev was torpedoed and sunk by U-435 on April 13, 1942, in convoy QP-10.
37. War Shipping Administration, Office of the Russian Shipping Area, Lend Lease Voyage Ledgers, National Archives and Records Administration, Record Group 248.3.3, boxes 21–35. The War Shipping Administration maintained handwritten records of each voyage.
38. G. Rudnev, Огненные Рейсы [Fiery flights] (Vladivostok: Dal’nevostochnoe Book Publishing House, 1975), 15.
39. While Soviet sources and maritime registers report that Svirstroi was sunk, intelligence reports during World War II suggest it was captured. See Office of Chief of Naval Operations, ONI-208-J (Revised): Japanese Merchant Ships Recognition Manual (Washington, D.C.: Intelligence Division, 1944), 255.
40. Rudnev, 61. 
41. Meister, 288, and P. Mulder, De Schepeu v. de KNSM 1856–1981 (Amsterdam: Erato, 1983).
42. Petr Osichanskii, П.П. Куянцев: Я Бы Снова Выбрал Море . . . [P.P. Kuyantsev: I would again choose the sea . . .] (Vladivostok: Far Eastern Association of Sea Captains, 1998), 16–23.
43. In addition to the war losses, Rabochii, Suchan, and Indigirka were lost in accidents before the war, and Dalstroi just afterward.
44. Zhores A. Medvedev, “Stalin and the Atomic Gulag,” Spokesman Books (2001): 105
45. Glinka, 40.
46. Varlam Shalamov, Kolyma Tales (London: Penguin Books, 1994), 175.
47. Nogin is reported in an unpublished letter cited by Zhores A. Medvedev. Odessa is reported by Russell Working, “Odessa Last Breadth of Soviet Liberty,” Moscow Times, 29 September 2000. The other ships are cited by Okupatsioonide Repressiivpoliitika Uurimise Riikiik Komisjon. There is an opportunity for confusion regarding the ship Kamenets-Podolsk—there were two such ships in the Soviet merchant fleet around this time. The first was constructed in 1915 in Britain and was sunk by German bombers off Elkjotshar on August 30, 1941, as documented by Meister, 290. This reference is to the ship constructed in 1944 in the United States and formerly known as the Robert S. Abbot. 
48. U.S. Department of Defense, Defense Prisoner of War/Missing Personnel Office, Memoirs (Washington, D.C.: February 29, 2000), www.dtic.mil/dpmo/special/memoirs.pdf (December 2002). This document contains witness testimony submitted to the U.S. Russia Joint Commission on POWs/MIAs.
49. U.S. Department of Defense, Defense Prisoner of War/Missing Personnel Office, The Gulag Study (Washington, D.C.: 2001), www.dtic.mil/dpmo/special/gulag_study.pdf (December 2002). This is a compilation of reports on the potential presence of U.S. servicemen in Gulag camps, prepared by the Joint Commission Support Directorate of the U.S. and Russia.
50. D.M. Long, The Soviet Merchant Fleet: Its Growth, Strategy, Strength and Weaknesses 1920–1999 (London: Lloyd’s of London Press, 1986), 11.
51. Horensma, 121.
52. Working.

Chapter 5: Below Decks: The Prisoners’ Stories 
1. Alexander Dolgun, Alexander Dolgun’s Story (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1975), 153, 157. 
2. Gustaw Herling, A World Apart (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1951), 83.
3. David Nordlander, Capital of the Gulag: Magadan in the Early Stalin Era, 1929–1941 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1997), 150.
4. For example, Sylvester Mora and Piotr Zwierniak, Sprawiedliwość Sowiecka [Soviet justice] (Włochy, 1945). Also Dark Side of the Moon (London: Faber and Faber, 1946). For a more recent account, see Robert Conquest, Kolyma: The Arctic Death Camps (New York: Viking Press, 1978).
5. This information is available on the original arrangements plan for SS Childar, a copy of which is in the author’s collection.
6. Stanislaw J. Kowalski “Kolyma: The Land of Gold and Death” (2000), www.personal.psu.edu/users/w/x/wxk116/sjk/kolyma4.htm (December 2002). 
7. Michael Solomon, Magadan (New York: Vertex, 1971), 85.
8. Evgenia Semyonovna Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1967), 353.
9. Thomas Sgovio, Dear America (New York: Partners’ Press, 1979), 141.
10. Elinor Lipper, Eleven Years in Soviet Prison Camps (Chicago: Henry Regnery, 1951), 287–88.
11. Dark Side of the Moon (London: Faber and Faber, 1946), 157. Narrative of a prisoner with initials T.L.
12. A.V. Gorbatov, Years Off My Life (New York: W.W. Norton, 1964), 125.
13. Ginzburg, 353–54.
14. Lipper, 93.
15. Ibid., 95.
16. Janusz Bardach and Kathleen Gleeson, Man Is Wolf to Man (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 191.
17. Solomon, 87–88.
18. Elena Glinka, “The Big Kolyma Streetcar,” Russian Life 31:3 (March 1998): 39–43
19. Varlam Shalamov, Kolyma Tales (London: Penguin Books, 1994), 175–76. Shalamov‘s book is a series of short stories. Some of these may be a blend of fact and fiction. However, it is known from other sources that KIM was in Nagaevo Harbor in December 1947. See G. Radnev, “Страшные Отголоски Минувшей Войны [Terrible echoes of the last war],” Zavetniy Krai 1 (1998), www.vld.ru/ppx/Kraj/Zkr1_pub.htm#Dalstroj (December 2002).
20. Solomon, 141. Here Solomon is relaying a tale told to him by a fellow camp inmate.
21. Dark Side of the Moon (London: Faber and Faber, 1946), 114.
22. Nadezhda Mandelstam, Hope against Hope (New York: Modern Library, 1999), 387.
23. Deposition of Victor Fedonuk, Le Procès Kravchenko contre Les Lettres Françaises (Paris: La Jeune Parque, 1949), 566.

Chapter 6: Shipwrecks in the Far North 
1. Igor Samarin, “Sakhalin Lighthouses” (1999), www.sakhalin.ru/Engl/Region/lighthouses/lighthouses.htm (December 2002).
2. Lloyd’s Confidential Index: Foreign 1938 (London: Corporation of Lloyd’s at Lloyd’s, 1 June 1939); Jury Vedernikov, “Хроники Кораблекрушений В Российских Водах Дальнего Востока [Chronicle of ship-wrecks in the Russian waters of the Far East],” Владивосток [Vladivostok], May 25, 1996, www.vld.ru/ppx/Katastr/Cronics.htm (December 2002).
3. Svetlana Meshchanskaia, Противостояние Японии и СССР/Бои у озера Хасан (29 июля - 11 августа 1938 года) [Confrontation of Japan and USSR: fighting at Lake Khasan (July, 29 to August, 11, 1938)]  (Moscow: BTV-MN, 2002), 40.
4. Vedernikov.
5. Petr Osichanskii, П.П. Куянцев: Я Бы Снова Выбрал Море . . . [P.P. Kuyantsev: I would again choose the sea . . .] (Vladivostok: Far Eastern Association of Sea Captains, 1998), 40.
6. Vedernikov.
7. Lloyd’s Confidential Index: Foreign 1935 (London: Corporation of Lloyd’s at Lloyd’s, 1 June 1936); Sergei Gavrilov, “Трагедия Буксира Кит [Tragedy of the tug Whale],” Новая Камчатская Правда [New Kamchatka Truth], no. 41 (October 18, 2001), www.iks.ru/~nkp/arhiv/html_arhiv/2001/41/41_4.html (December 2002).
8. Stanislaw J. Kowalski, “White Auschwitz of Kolyma,” www.gulag.hu/white_auschwitz.htm (December 2002).
9. Raul Fumagali, “My Polish Friend: Amazing Life and Adventures,” www.thelatinmass.com/lopacki.html (December 2002).
10. Igor Samarin, e-mail to the author, February 10, 2002.
11. Lloyd’s Confidential Index: Foreign 1935.
12. Petr Osichanskii, П.П. Куянцев: Я Бы Снова Выбрал Море . . . [P.P. Kuyantsev: I would again choose the sea . . .] (Vladivostok: Far Eastern Association of Sea Captains, 1998), 12. 
13. David Nordlander, Capital of the Gulag: Magadan in the Early Stalin Era, 1929–1941 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1997), 256.
14. Osichanskii, 23.
15. Gakkel’, “Арктическая Навигация 1937 Года [Arctic navigation 1937],” Проблемы Арктика [Arctic problems] 1 (1938): 117–34.
16. “Беспрецедентное Рейс Парохода Рабочий [Unprecedented voyage of the steamship Rabochii],” Арктический Института Бюллетень [Arctic Institute bulletin] 10 (1935): 342. Conquest claims the ship was carrying prisoners but mistakenly gives the year as 1933. Conquest, Kolyma: The Arctic Death Camps, 222.
17. Aleksandr I. Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago: 1918–1956 (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1998), vol. 1, 581.
18. Fumagali.
19. There are at least five accounts of this incident. Three prisoners in the Kolyma Gulag provide secondhand accounts of the incident as told to them by other prisoners. See Vladimir Petrov, Soviet Gold: My Life as a Slave Laborer in the Siberian Mines (New York: Farrar, Straus, 1949), 155. See also Elinor Lipper, Eleven Years in Soviet Prison Camps (Chicago: Henry Regnery, 1951), 93; and Evgenia Semyonovna Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1967), 355–56. A reference to the incident, though with the year reported as 1938 rather than 1939, is in Solzhenitsyn, 582. The most complete account is from a passenger aboard the ship at the time. See Nadezhda Grankina, “Notes by Your Contemporary,” Till My Tale Is Told, ed. Simeon Vilensky (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999), 138–39.
20. Grankina, 139.
21. Ginzburg, 355–56.
22. James Oberg writes in Uncovering Soviet Disasters (New York: Random House, 1988), www.jamesoberg.com/russian/sub.html (December 2002), that “thousands of political prisoners” were suffocated during this incident. Oberg cites Solzhenitsyn as the source, yet this is not what Solzhenitsyn wrote in the work cited. See Solzhenitsyn, 582. 
23. David Cantrill, “Lake Washington Research,” 25 October 2001, personal e-mail (October 25, 2001). Cantrill is the archivist of the Kirkland Heritage Society.
24. There are several accounts of this incident, all from Russian sources. The most complete story, based on interviews with survivor Pavel Kuyantsev, can be found in Osichanskii, 16–23. The incident is also covered in Alla Paperno, Тайны и История: Ленд-Лез Тихий Океан [Secrets and history: Lend-Lease Pacific Ocean] (Moscow: Terra-Book Club, 1998), 242–43. Another account appears in G. Radnev, “Страшные Отголоски Минувшей Войны [Terrible echoes of the last war],” Zavetniy Krai 1 (1998), www.vld.ru/ppx/Kraj/Zkr1_pub.htm#Dalstroj (December 2002).
25. Paperno, 241.
26. Lipper, 290–91.
27. Okupatsioonide Repressiivpoliitika Uurimise Riikiik Komisjon, “The Soviet Prison Camps in Extreme North and Estonian Political Prisoners in Kolyma,” www.okupatsioon.ee/trykised/oll/oll_kolyma_vang1.html (December 2002).
28. Radnev, “Страшные Отголоски Минувшей Войны.”
29. Leonid Vinogradov, “Ржавые Свидетели Старой Трагедии Найдены [Rusty witnesses of old tragedy are found],” Ежедневные Новости Владивосток [Daily news Vladivostok] 183 (1998) novosti.vl.ru/1998/183/hap_01.html (January 2001).

Chapter 7: Did Twelve Thousand People Starve to Death on Dzhurma?
1. Epigraph: Alec Brown, trans., The Voyage of the Chelyuskin (New York: Macmillan, 1935).
2. Roger W. Jordan, The World’s Merchant Fleets 1939: The Particulars and Wartime Fates of 6,000 Ships (London: Chatham, 1999), 480. The Wilhelm Gustloff was a 25,484-ton German passenger liner built in 1938. During the war, it was used by Germany as a hospital ship and U-boat accommodation ship. On January 20, 1945, while transporting refugees, including wounded German soldiers, out of the path of advancing Soviet forces, it was torpedoed and sunk by the Russian submarine S-13. Official estimates of those killed range from 5,100 to 5,384. Unofficial estimates are several thousands higher.
3. David Y. Dallin and Boris I. Nicolaevsky, Forced Labor in Soviet Russia (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1947), 129.
4. Their work does cite a December 1945 interview with a Soviet merchant sailor ,published in the journal Sotsialisticheski Vestnik. This article mentions the Dzhurma, but while this sailor confirms that the Dzhurma was used on Gulag routes from 1937 to 1940, it mentions nothing about the reported incident of 1933/34 . See “Кровью Омытое Советское Золото [Blood-washed Soviet gold],” Социалистический Вестник [Socialist bulletin] 21–22 (December 10, 1945): 579–80. 
5. Robert Conquest, The Great Terror: A Reassessment (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), 326. There is at least one mistake in this account. The Dzhurma was by no means the first ship to transport prisoners from Vladivostok to Ambarchik. The previous year, a convoy of six ships made the journey, and at least two of them were carrying Gulag prisoners. See William Barr, “First Convoy to the Kolyma: The Soviet Northeast Polar Expedition, 1932–33,” Polar Record 19:123 (1979): 563–72.
6. John McCannon, Red Arctic: Polar Exploration and the Myth of the North in the Soviet Union, 1932–1939 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 65. McCannon asserts in a footnote (pp. 191–92) that the casualty figure of twelve thousand is greatly overstated. The depiction of Magadan as the destination rather than Ambarchik is simply an error, as confirmed in discussions between McCannon and this author.
7. Colin Thubron, In Siberia (New York: HarperCollins, 1999), 272.
8. Martin Amis, Koba the Dread: Laughter and the Twenty Million (New York: Talk Mirimax Boos, 2002).  Amis gives no source for this information.
9. Steve Forbes, “Fact and Comment,” Forbes, February 3, 2003.  Forbes, referring to the broad arguments in Amis’s book, adds that Amis’s “indictment is unchallengeable.”
10. In a copy of Lloyd’s Register of Shipping: 1935–36 (London: Lloyd’s Register of Shipping, 1936) owned by the author, a new record for Dzhurma appears as a hand-pasted update to the 1935–36 edition. The original record for this ship, under the name Brielle, also appears in this edition. This update happened after the 1935–36 edition was published, which is consistent with the timing of the transfer to the Soviet Union. This simple hand-pasted update, which was clearly inconsistent with the original accounts of Dzhurma’s experiences in 1933-34, is what first caused this author to question those original accounts and subsequently launch this research project.  Consequently, this volume occupies a place of special honor in the author’s library.)
11. See, for example, Aad Schol, Koninklijke Nederlandsche Stoomboot-Maatschappij [The Royal Netherlands Steamship Company] (Alkmaar: De Alk bv., 1998), 55. Similar sources include P. Mulder, De Schepeu v. de KNSM 1856–1981 (Amsterdam: Erato, 1983). These data are supported by official Dutch records—for example, Staat der Nederlandsche Zeemat ea Koopvaarelyvloot (1936).
12. Aleksandr G. Kozlov, “От Истории Колымских Лагерей: 1932–37 [From the history of the Kolyma camps: 1932–37],” Краеведческие Записки [Notes of the Museum of Regional History] 17 (1991): 78.
13. Dallin and Nicolaevsky, 129.
14. Terrance Armstrong, The Northern Sea Route: Soviet Exploration of the North East Passage (London: Syndics of the Cambridge University Press, 1952), 25–26. Armstrong’s data are largely derived from translated Soviet arctic journals in the 1930s, including Арктический Института Бюллетень [Arctic Institute bulletin], Совиетскайа Арктика [Soviet Arctic], and Проблемы Арктика [Arctic problems].
15. Armstrong, 26. Names for the ships in 1931 are obtained from Barr, 563.
16. Barr, 563. Barr bases his account on published Soviet accounts of this voyage and notes, with understatement, that in regard to the 1,000 passengers, “one can assume that few of these were volunteers.”
17. Yevgenov, “Возвращение Судов Северо-восточной Экспедиции года 132 [The return of the ships of the 1932 northeastern expedition],” Арктический Института Бюллетень [Arctic Institute bulletin] 5 (1933): 118–24.
18. Solzhenitsyn, 581–82, explains how provisions were made to hide the nature of the “cargo” on the Gulag ships as they passed through La Perouse Strait, in Japanese waters. It should have been no more difficult to hide this cargo from airborne Western eyes in the Arctic. Clearly, it would have been more difficult to hide the ship’s mission should direct contact be made during a Chelyuskin rescue operation. Of course, Stalin could have been motivated by reasons that had nothing to do with the potential for accidental discovery of Gulag ships. There are numerous examples of the Soviet Union—and Russia—refusing international help and thereby putting at risk military and civilian shipboard personnel.
19. The earliest known reference is by Eduard Belimov “Тайна экспедиции Челюскина [Secrets of the Chelyuskin expedition],” Новая Сибирь [New Siberia] (March 9, 2000), www.newsib.cis.ru/2000_10/pancl_1.html (December 2002). Also see “Челюскинцы [Chelyuskin], “Ежедневные Новости Владивосток [Daily news Vladivostok] (17 November 2000), novosti.vl.ru/index.php?f=ag&t=001117ag06 (December 2002)
20. Det Statistiske Departement, “Danmarks Vareindførsel og—Udførsel I Aaret 1933,” Statistisk Tabelværk, Femte Række, Litra D, No. 54 (Copenhagen: Det Statistiske Departement, 1934), 176, table 2.
21. Erik Ericksen, Værftet bag de 1000 skibe: Burmeister & Wain Skibsværft (Copenhagen: Burmeister and Wain, 1993).
22. Refrigerator #13 was the most famous of this series. As would befit a ship with this name, it was involved in a disastrous collision with Soviet submarine S-178 in October 1981. A major rescue operation was mounted, but thirty-one or thirty-two crewmen perished.
23. Soviet Merchant Ships 1945–1968 (Homewell: Kenneth Mason, 1969), 148.
24. Lloyd’s Register of Shipping: 1935–36. However, it is not axiomatic that a listing in Lloyd’s Register of Shipping indicates the ship is afloat, especially for Soviet ships at this time, and particularly smaller ships.
25. Office of Chief of Naval Operations, ONI-208R: Russian Merchant Vessels (Washington, D.C.: Intelligence Division, December 20, 1942).

Chapter 8: Questions of Numbers
[@N]1. Epigraph: Central Intelligence Agency, The Soviet Forced Labor System: An Update, F-1990-01720 (November 30, 1985), 4, www.foia.ucia.gov (December 2002). A formerly classified report declassified May 5, 1997.
2. Michael Solomon, Magadan (New York: Vertex, 1971), 85.
3. Stanislaw J. Kowalski, “White Auschwitz of Kolyma,” www.gulag.hu/white_auschwitz.htm (December 2002).
4. Nadezhda Grankina, “Notes by Your Contemporary,” Till My Tale Is Told, ed. Simeon Vilensky (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999), 138.
5. David Y. Dallin and Boris I. Nicolaevsky, Forced Labor in Soviet Russia (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1947), 128.
6. Robert Conquest, Kolyma: The Arctic Death Camps (New York: Viking Press, 1978), 224.
7. V.P. Bolotov, ed., “Документы о Гибели Парохода Индигирка в Районе п. Саруфуцу (о.Хоккайдо) в 1939 году [Documents about the destruction of the steamship Indigirka in the area of Sarufutsu (off Hokkaido) in 1939]” (1998), www.vld.ru/ppx/Indigir/Docs.htm (December 2002).
8. Varlam Shalamov, Kolyma Tales (London: Penguin Books, 1994), 175.
9. Russell Working, “Odessa Last Breadth of Soviet Liberty,” Moscow Times, September 29, 2000.
10. Zhores A. Medvedev, “Stalin and the Atomic Gulag,” Spokesman Books (2001): 105, www.spokesmanbooks.com/spokesman/spksmn_69.htm (December 2002)
11. Solomon, 84.
12. Lloyd’s Register of Shipping: 1935–36. There were a number of 5,000-ton ships built in Scotland in 1939, including Baron Semple, Barwon, Bhima, Broompark, Bundaleer, Cape Clear, Cefn-Y-Bryn, Dornoch, Hillong, Glenpark, Kaipaki, Saint Bernard, Sangara, Sansu, and Seaforth. All of these ships can be accounted for in 1947, and none were operated by the Soviet Union.
13. Aleksandr I. Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago: 1918–1956 (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1998), vol. 1, 581.
14. Vladimir Petrov, Soviet Gold: My Life as a Slave Laborer in the Siberian Mines (New York: Farrar, Straus, 1949), 154.
15. Solomon, 92–98.
16. Petrov, 243.
17. Elinor Lipper, Eleven Years in Soviet Prison Camps (Chicago: Henry Regnery, 1951), 93.
18. Janusz Bardach and Kathleen Gleeson, Man Is Wolf to Man (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999).
19. Alla Paperno, Тайны и История: Ленд-Лез Тихий Океан [Secrets and history: Lend-Lease Pacific Ocean] (Moscow: Terra-Book Club, 1998), 237.
20. “Кровью Омытое Советское Золото [Blood-washed Soviet gold],” Социалистический Вестник [Socialist bulletin] 21–22 (December 10, 1945): 579–80.
21. I.D. Batsaev, “Колымская Гряда Архипелага Гулаг, Заключенные [Kolyma Range of the Gulag Archipelago],” Исторические Аспекты Северо-Востока России: Экономика, Образование, Колымский Гулаг [Historical aspects of Russia’s Northeast: Economics, formation of the Kolyma Gulag]“ (1996): 50. The Batsaev data are cited in Stephen G. Wheatcroft, “Victims of Stalinism and the Soviet Secret Police: The Comparability and Reliability of the Archival Data—Not the Last Word,” Europe/Asia Studies 51:2 (1999): 315.
22. Robert Conquest, The Great Terror: A Reassessment (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), 325.
23. Conquest, Kolyma: The Arctic Death Camps, 227.
24. Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Research and Reports, Soviet Gold Production, Reserves and Exports through 1954, CIA/SC/RR 121 (17 October 1955): 37, www.foia.ucia.gov (December 2002). A formerly classified report declassified January 23, 2001.
25. This table compares estimates of Kolyma camp population from a variety of sources. “Batsaev /Bacon” data represent the average number of prisoners during the year and are from (for 1942) Edwin Bacon, The Gulag at War: Stalin’s Forced Labour System in the Light of the Archives (New York: New York University Press, 1994), 113, and (for other years) I.D. Batsaev, " Колымская Гряда Архипелага Гулаг, Заключенные [Kolyma Range of the Gulag Archipelago]," Исторические Аспекты Северо-Востока России: Экономика, Образование, Колымский Гулаг [Historical Aspects of Russia’s Northeast:  Economics, Formation of the Kolyma Gulag]” (1996): 50.  “Sigachev/Zemskov” estimates are for prisoners as of January 1 of each year and are from  S. Sigachev, “History of Magadan Town and Surrounding Territory,” <http://www.kolyma.ru/History/dalstroi.htm> (January 2001) and Victor N. Zemskov, "Заключенные в 1930-ых (Демографические аспекты) [Prisoners in the 1930s – demographic aspects]"  Социологические Исследования [Sociological research] 7 (1996): 6.  “Kozlov” data measure the numbers of prisoners at the start of each year and are from A.G. Kozlov, “От Истории Колымских Лагерей: 1932-37 [From the History of the Kolyma Camps: 1932-37],” Краеведческие Записки [Notes of the Museum of Regional History] 17 (1991): 61-91.  
“Pohl” data reflect number of prisoners during month of September and are from  Otto J. Pohl, The Stalinist Penal System:  A Statistical History of Soviet Repression and Terror, 1930-1953 (Jefferson:  McFarland & Company, Inc., 1997), 43.  It is unclear whether the “Pilyasov” data refer to estimates at points in time or annual averages. These data are from A.N. Pilyasov, Динамика Промышленного Производства в Магаданской Области: 1932-1992 [Dynamics of Industrial Manufacturing in Magadan Area: 1932-1992], (Magadan, 1993), 225.  The Batsaev, Zemskov and Pilyasov data values were obtained from Stephen G. Wheatcroft, "Victims of Stalinism and the Soviet Secret Police: The Comparability and Reliability of the Archival Data – Not the Last Word," Europe/Asia Studies 51:2 (1999): 315.  Wheatcroft is also the source for the Tkachvca data.
26. Conquest, Kolyma: The Arctic Death Camp, 227. Conquest estimates shipments of prisoners as fifty thousand per year from 1932 to 1936 and again from 1942 to 1943 (by his calculation, seven years for a total of 350,000); and 200,000–210,000 per year from 1937 to 1941 and again from 1944 and through 1953 (by his calculation, for a total of 3,150,000).
27. Central Intelligence Agency, The Soviet Forced Labor System: An Update, F-1990-01720 (30 November 1985):4 www.foia.ucia.gov (December 2002). A formerly classified report declassified May 5, 1997.
28. Batsaev.
29. Conquest, Kolyma: The Arctic Death Camp, 227.
30. Paperno, 232.
31. Conquest, Kolyma: The Arctic Death Camp, 223.
32. Bacon, 168.
33. Aleksandr Kozlov, Исторический Сборник «Дальстрой» и «Севостлаг» ОГПУ НКВД СССР в Цифрах и Документах. 1931–1941 гг. Часть 1 [Historical collection of Dal’stroi and Sevvostlag OGPU/NKVD of the USSR, in figures and documents, 1931–1941, Part 1] Magadan: North-East Interdisciplinary Scientific Research Institute, 2001).

Chapter 9: The NKVD’s Ships 
1. Epigraph: K.R. Haigh, Cableships and Submarine Cables (London: Adlard Coles, 1968), 57.
2. Robert Conquest, Kolyma: The Arctic Death Camps (New York: Viking Press, 1988), 36–48, 220–25, and appendix A.
3. Variations in spelling occur due to the evolution of Russian transliteration protocols and simple cases of human error. In the interest of historical accuracy, the author has repeated past variations in spelling for each ship’s name as it has appeared in various publications over time.
4. The exact number is unknown. But Dzhurma operated full-time on the Gulag route from 1936 to at least 1950, except for the period 1941 to 1945, when it was mostly used on Lend-Lease supply duties, and in 1938, when it was under repair for at least part of the year. The estimate of 225,000 assumes the ship operated nine years full-time on the Kolyma route, made an average of ten voyages per year, and carried 2,500 people per voyage. These are very conservative estimates.
5. Aad Schol, Koninklijke Nederlandsche Stoomboot-Maatschappij [The Royal Netherlands Steamship Company] (Alkmaar: De Alk bv., 1998), 44.
6. Alla Paperno, Тайны и История: Ленд-Лез Тихий Океан [Secrets and history: Lend-Lease Pacific Ocean] (Moscow: Terra-Book Club, 1998), 223.
7. Paperno, 223.
8. Schol, 55. See also A.G. Kozlov, “От Истории Колымских Лагерей: 1932–37 [From the history of the Kolyma camps: 1932–37],” Краеведческие Записки [Notes of the Museum of Regional History] 17 (1991): 78. 
9. For 1936 see Vladimir Petrov, Soviet Gold: My Life as a Slave Laborer in the Siberian Mines (New York: Farrar, Straus, 1949), 147–59. Petrov was a passenger on Dzhurma in 1936. For 1939 see Evgenia Semyonovna Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1967). Ginzburg was a passenger on Dzhurma in 1939. See also Nadezhda Grankina, “Notes by Your Contemporary,” Till My Tale Is Told, ed. Simeon Vilensky (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999), 138–39. Grankina was also a passenger on Dzhurma. For 1949 see A.V. Gorbatov, Years Off My Life (New York: W.W. Norton, 1964), 124–26. Gorbatov was a passenger on Dzhurma in 1939 and 1940. For 1949 see Michael Solomon, Magadan (New York: Vertex, 1971), 92–98. Solomon was a passenger on Dzhurma in 1949.
10. For 1937 see Memorial (Kursk), “Джафарова Берта Самойловна (Dzhafarova Berta Samoblovna),” www.memorial.krsk.ru/martirol/dj_dl.htm (December 2002). For 1938 see Yuri Illarionovich Moiseenko, “Поэзия Каторги [Poetry Katorgi],” www.MTU-NET.ru/rayner/avtorskaja/poes_katorgi11.htm (December 2002). For 1941 see Stanislaw J. Kowalski, “Kolyma: The Land of Gold and Death” (2000), www.personal.psu.edu/users/w/x/wxk116/sjk/kolyma4.htm (December 2002). Kowalski was a passenger on the Dzhurma in 1941. For 1944 see Memorial (Kursk), “Сообщение Михаила Николаевича Соболева [Michael Nikolaevicha Soboleva’s message],” www.memorial.krsk.ru/svidet/mnsobol.htm (December 2002). This is the biography of Nikolai Fyodorovich Soboleva. For 1950 see Larissa Ratushnaya, “Этюды О Колымских Днях [Essays about days in Kolyma]” (1999), www.art.uralinfo.ru/LITERAT/Ural/Ural_7_99/Ural_07_99_08.htm (December 2002).
11. For 1937 see Nadezhda Surovtseva, “Vladivostok Transit,” Till My Tale Is Told, ed. Simeon Vilensky (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999), 184. For 1938 see Aleksandr I. Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago: 1918–1956 (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1998), vol. 1, 582. For 1940 see Elinor Lipper, Eleven Years in Soviet Prison Camps (Chicago: Henry Regnery, 1951), 93. Lipper relays several stories about the Dzhurma as told to her by other Kolyma prisoners. For the period 1937 to 1940 see “Кровью Омытое Советское Золото [Blood-washed Soviet gold],” Социалистический Вестник [Socialist bulletin] 21–22 (December 10, 1945): 579–80. An interview with an anonymous sailor in the Soviet Union. He confirms that Dzhurma, Dalstroi, Felix Dzerzhinsky, and Sovietskaya Latvia were used on this route at least during 1937 to 1940. This is the first known published account that mentions these ships in the context of Gulag service. For 1949 see Zhores A. Medvedev, “Stalin and the Atomic Gulag,” Spokesman Books (2001): 105, www.spokesmanbooks.com/spokesman/spksmn_69.htm (December 2002).
12. War Shipping Administration, Office of the Russian Shipping Area, Lend Lease Voyage Ledgers. National Archives and Records Administration, Record Group [hereafter RG] 248.3.3, boxes 21–35. The War Shipping Administration maintained handwritten records of each voyage. 
13. Records of the War Shipping Administration, Office of the Russian Shipping Area, 1942–46. These records are held by the U.S. National Archives and Records Administration, RG 248.3.3, boxes 21–36.
14. U.S. Department of Defense, Defense Prisoner of War/Missing Personnel Office, “The Gulag Study” (2001), www.dtic.mil/dpmo/special/gulag_study.pdf (December 2002). This is a compilation of reports on the potential presence of U.S. servicemen in Gulag camps, prepared by the Joint Commission Support Directorate of the United States and Russia.
15. Jeffrey Curtis and Ambrose Greenway, Ambrose Soviet Merchant Ships (Homewell, Havant, Hampshire: Kenneth Mason, 1976), 64. As of 2002, the replacement Dzhurma was still in service, under the name Pamela Gold.
16. Lloyd’s Register of Shipping: 1935–36.
17. Paperno, 223.
18. Ibid.
19. For the published record from 1939, see Lipper, 92–94. Lipper was a passenger on Dalstroi in 1939. Lipper also writes of the explosion aboard Dalstroi in 1946, but this incident is unlikely to be linked to a passenger voyage. For the 1938 incident, see Moiseyenko. For the voyage in 1940, see Marion Sloma, “Lasciate Ogni Speranza,”  www.najmici.org/kolyma/ksiazka11.htm (December 2002). Sloma was a passenger aboard Dalstroi in 1940. For the 1942 record, see Raul Fumagali, “My Polish Friend: Amazing Life and Adventures,” www.thelatinmass.com/lopacki.html (December 2002). Richard Lopacki, the subject of this manuscript, was a passenger on Dalstroi in 1942.
20. For 1936 and 1939 see Petrov, 157. For 1937 see Surovtseva, 184. For 1940, see Sylvester Mora and Piotr Zwierniak, Sprawiedliwość Sowiecka [Soviet justice] (Włochy, 1945). This book contains a number of anonymous testimonies of Polish prisoners in the Gulag, one of which refers to a voyage on Dalstroi in 1940. For the 1937–1940 period, see Социалистический Вестник [Socialist bulletin], 579–80.
21. E.E. Starobinskij, “Менеджмент и психология в бизнесе: Королев С.П. [Management and Psychology in Business: Korolev S.P.]” (2001), www.ukrinter.com/ssart_board_view.asp?ID=17&MID=4 (January 2002).
22. Dalstroi rescued survivors of the Nippon Maru, sunk by submarine USS Skate on July 16, 1945, off Sakhalin Island. See Robert J. Cressman, The Official Chronology of the U.S. Navy in World War II (Washington, D.C.: Naval Historical Center, 1995).
23. Osichanskii, 16–23.
24. Traditional submarine cables had a limited throughput of perhaps two to three hundred characters per minute. By surrounding the cable with a substance that would itself be magnetized by the currents passing through the cable, it was possible to improve the inductance of the cable and boost the transmission rate almost tenfold. The scientists at Western Electric developed such a material, a mixture of 80 percent nickel and 20 percent iron, suitably heat-treated. It was called Permalloy, and submarine cables that included a layer of this material around the transmission wires were said to be “loaded.” Engineers at Telegraph Construction and Maintenance Company (Telcon) simultaneously developed a copper-nickel-iron alloy known as Mumetal that had characteristics similar to Permalloy.
25. G.L. Lawford and L.R. Nicholson, The Telcon Story (London: Telegraph Construction and Maintenance, 1950), 97. The Great Eastern, twice the size of Dominia, was used at times as a cable ship but had not been constructed for this purpose. Though half the size of Great Eastern, Dominia actually carried more cable.
26. K.R. Haigh, Cableships and Submarine Cables (London: Adlard Coles, 1968), 272, 376.
27. Lawford and Nicholson, 107.
28. Haigh, 42.
29. Paperno, 223.
30. Ibid., 235.
31. “Биография Нины Владимировны Сароевы [Biography of Nina Vladimirovna Saroeva],” www.sakharov-center.ru/adcs/bio/98.htm (January 2001).
32. Социалистический Вестник [Socialist bulletin], 579–80.
33. Petrov, 406.
34. Grankina, 138–39.
35. G. Radnev, “Страшные Отголоски Минувшей Войны [Terrible echoes of the last war],” Zavetniy Krai 1 (1998), www.vld.ru/ppx/Kraj/Zkr1_pub.htm#Dalstroj (December 2002).
36. Paperno, 239.
37. “Военнопленные [Military prisoners],” Невское Время [Neva times], November 5, 1998, www.pressa.spb.ru/newspapers/nevrem/arts/nevrem-1843-art-14.html (December 2002).
38. Conquest, Kolyma: The Arctic Death Camps, 25. This author has been unable to obtain independent confirmation of this assertion. It is known that Kamenets-Podolsk, a former World War II Liberty ship that carried at least some prisoners to the Gulag, was converted into a mother ship for the Vladivostok fishing fleet.
39. James A. Gibbs, Pacific Graveyard (Portland, Oregon: Binfords and Mort, 1950), 91.
40. Redwing was not so fortunate. Transferred to the regular U.S. Navy in 1941, it was destroyed by an underwater explosion off Tunisia in 1943. See Navy Department, Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships (Washington, D.C.: Naval Historical Division, 1963).
41. Ilze Bernsone and Aigars Miklavs, “The Latvians: A Seafaring Nation,” Latvian Institute (2001), www.latinst.lv/seafaring.htm (December 2002). Aigars Miklavs of the Museum of Riga History and Navigation, e-mail to the author, July 20, 2001.
42. Paperno, 224.
43. For the published account of the 1949 voyage, see Solomon, 84–88. For the record of the 1941 voyage, see Fumagali. For information on the 1946 voyage, see Memorial (Tomsk), “Есть люди нелегкой судьбы . . . [There are people of hard destiny . . .],” www.memorial.tomsk.ru:8100/memo/lud/ade.htm (December 2002). This is a biography of Daniel Egorovich Alina. See also Zhores A. Medvedev, “Stalin and the Atomic Gulag,” Spokesman Books (2001): 105, www.spokesmanbooks.com/spokesman/spksmn_69.htm (December 2002).
44. Социалистический Вестник [Socialist bulletin], 579–80.
45. Radnev.
46. National Security Agency, The Venona Documents (Washington, D.C.: 1998), www.nsa.gov/docs/venona/docs/Nov43/01_Nov_1943_R4_m3_p1.gif (December 2002). Message 451 from San Francisco to Moscow for November 1, 1943.
47. James Meusholt “Burrard Dry Dock Co Ltd.” (1970). Unpublished manuscript.
48. Conquest, Kolyma: The Arctic Death Camps, 233, mistakenly lists the name as Bitoe.
49. Lloyd’s Register of Shipping: 1935–36.
50. G.J. de Boer, The Centenary of the Stoomvaart Maatschappij “Nederland” 1870–1970 (Kendal, England: World Ship Society, 1970).
51. Novokuznetsk City Study of Local Lore Museum, “Сергеев Александр Григорьевич [Sergey Alexander Grigor’evich]” (1995), www.kuzbass.ru/nkz/stalinsk/sergeev.htm (December 2002).
52. For the 1936 voyage see “Восстание троцкистов на Колыме [Troskyite insurrection in Kolyma],” www.gulag.ru/page/zk/v_Trozk/v_trozk.htm (December 2002). This manuscript details the transport of L.I. Girshik to the Kolyma Gulag. For the 1937 record see Surovtseva, 184. See also Solzhenitsyn, 581.
53. Paperno, 223.
54. The use of Kulu in the evacuation of wounded soldiers from Lake Khasan is described in G. F. Krivosheeva, ed., Россия и СССР в Войнах XX Века: Потери Вооруженных СИЛ [Russia and the USSR in wars of the 20th century: Losses of armed forces) (Moscow: Olma Press, 2001).
55. Социалистический Вестник [Socialist bulletin], 579–80.
56. The 1945 record is from the Office of Chief of Naval Operations, ONI-208R: Russian Merchant Vessels (Washington, D.C.: Intelligence Division, December 20, 1942). See also Lloyd’s Register of Shipping: 1935–36, and E.C. Talbot-Booth, Merchant Ships 1959 (London: Journal of Commerce, 1959).
57. Oleg Dejev, conversation with the author June 1, 2002. Dejev, who now lives in Chicago, worked as an electrician for Dalmoreprodukt before migrating to the United States. He maintains a keen interest in the Dalmoreprodukt fleet. His father was a mechanic for Dalmoreprodukt and worked aboard Kulu.
58. China Navigation Company Limited: A Pictorial History 1872–1992 (Hong Kong: John Swire and Sons, 1992).
59. H.W. Dick and S.A. Kentwell, Beancaker to Boxboat: Steamship Companies in Chinese Waters (Canberra: Nautical Association of Australia, 1958), 81.
60. Dick and Kentwell, 81–82.
61. “Great Lakes Vessels Index, Historical Collections of the Great Lakes,” Bowling Green State University, www.bgsu.edu/colleges/library/hcgl/vessel.html (December 2002).
62. Ibid.
63. Thomas Sgovio, Dear America (New York: Partners’ Press, 1979), 138. Sgovio boarded Indigirka on August 2, 1938.
64. Paperno, 223–24.
65. The author has compared photographs of Ripon taken in 1919 with photographs of the wreckage of Indigirka taken in 1939. It is clearly the same ship, and the wreckage bears no resemblance to the Tsinan.
66. Paperno.
67. Osichanskii.

Chapter 10: The Western Connection
1. Epigraph: request for two-hundred-thousand-dollar overhaul Dzhurma in Portland, Oregon. War Shipping Administration, Office of the Russian Shipping Area, Memo from J.B. Hutchins, Director of Russian Area for the War Shipping Administration, to H.M. Salisbury of the Foreign Economic Administration (March 27, 1945). National Archives and Records Administration, Records of the Soviet Far East Region 1942–46, Record Group [hereafter RG], 238, box 26.
2. Information in this section is taken largely from U.S. Shipping Board, Operations Organization, Ship Sales Division, General Records 1919–1936. National Archives and Records Administration, RG 32 B190 069/06/01, box 202, folder S-128-1: “Ship Sales Data.” 
3. The Eugene Dietzgen Company was a producer of drafting instruments and slide rules, but there is another side to the story. Eugene’s father, Joseph Dietzgen, was a well known author of Marxist dialectics in the middle and late 1800s. Eugene, who arrived in the United States in 1885, published papers on his father’s political philosophy.
4. Ohsol became a U.S. citizen in Boston in 1913 and was probably living in Washington, D.C., between 1916 and 1919. (His children were born during those years in Washington.) By 1922 he was back in New York, residing at 2074 Mohegan Avenue in the Bronx. Two years later his address was 880 West 180th Street, New York. He made at least two trips overseas, arriving again at Ellis Island in 1922 (with his wife Klara, son Ernest, daughter Eleanor) and 1924, both times from Southampton, England.
5. “Ohsol Defends Himself,” New York Times, June 21, 1913, 11:4.
6. “Links Socialists with Beef Inquiry,” New York Times, October 21, 1919, 19:6.
7. “Soviet Contracts,” New York Times, September 10, 1922, 10:6.
8. “Amtorg Chief’s Right to Enter Country Challenged by Fish,” New York Times, July 23, 1930, 1:3. (The reference is not to sea life but to Hamilton Fish, a congressman at that time.)
9. United States Shipping Board, “Ship Sales Data” Prices paid were $92,000 for Chebaulip, $90,000 for Aledo, $82,000 for Dallas, $80,000 for Galesburg, $69,000 for Masuda, $66,000 for Bellingham, and $61,000 for Puget Sound. These were significant discounts from the original asking prices. For example, the asking price for Chebaulip was $141,000.
10. United States Shipping Board, Operations Organization, Ship Sales Division General Records, 1919–1936. National Archives and Records Administration, RG 32 B190 069/06/01, box 1, folder S-101-3 Part 2: “Classification of the Fleet.”
11. U.S. Maritime Commission, Division of Operations 1917–1949, Vessel Movement Cards. The commission maintained records of ship movements on index cards. These are available at the National Archives and Records Administration, RG 178 B190 079/18/04, boxes 1–24.
12. “Sanctions Sale of 5 Ships,” New York Times, February 13, 1930, 43:1.
13. A.G. Kozlov, “От Истории Колымских Лагерей: 1932–37 [From the history of the Kolyma camps: 1932–37],” Краеведческие Записки [Notes of the Museum of Regional History] 17 (1991): 78.
14. Robert Huhn Jones, The Roads to Russia: United States Lend-Lease to the Soviet Union (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1969), 238.
15. Robert E. Sherwood, as quoted by Jones, 113. Sherwood was Director of Overseas Operations in the Office of War Information.
16. Central Intelligence Agency, Status of Soviet-Held US Lend-Lease Vessels—S-2278 (Washington, D.C.: Office of Research and Reports, April 18, 1967), 2. Formerly classified report declassified January 23, 2001.
17. Central Intelligence Agency, Current Use and Maintenance of Merchant Ships Acquired by the USSR under Lend Lease (Washington, D.C.: December 31, 1954), 2. Formerly classified report declassified on January 9, 2001.
18. Russell Working, “Odessa Last Breadth of Soviet Liberty,” Moscow Times, September 29, 2000. The article cites claims by Nikolai Turkutyukov, a worker on the Lend-Lease program during World War II, that several Liberty ships, including Odessa, were employed on Gulag transport duties shortly after their arrival from the United States.
19. Central Intelligence Agency, Status of Soviet-Held US Lend-Lease Vessels, 2.
20. George R. Jordan, From Major Jordan’s Diaries (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1952).
21. James Meusholt, “Burrard Dry Dock Co. Ltd.” Unpublished manuscript, circa 1970.
22. Letter to the author from Robert A. Hennig, September 10, 2001.
23. Unless otherwise noted, data in the following section is taken largely from records of the War Shipping Administration, Office of the Russian Shipping Area, 1942–46. These records are held by the U.S. National Archives and Records Administration, RG 248.3.3, boxes 21–36.
24. Memorial (Kursk), “Сообщение Михаила Николаевича Соболева [Michael Nikolaevicha Soboleva’s message],” www.memorial.krsk.ru/svidet/mnsobol.htm (December 2002). This is the biography of Nikolai Fyodorovich Soboleva. Additional information about the use of Dzhurma on the Kolyma route in 1944 is in Alla Paperno, Тайны и История: Ленд-Лез Тихий Океан [Secrets and history: Lend-Lease Pacific Ocean] (Moscow: Terra-Book Club, 1998).
25. National Security Agency, “Report from ‘Sergej’ on the Suicide in San Francisco of a Seaman,” The Venona Documents (Washington, D.C.: 1998), www.nsa.gov/docs/venona/docs/Apr45/05_Apr_1945_R4_m1_p1.gif (December 2002). Message 54 from San Francisco to Moscow dated April 5, 1945. The U.S. National Security Agency recently published intercepts of Soviet communications conducted within the United States during World War II. These are known as the “Venona transcripts.” It turns out that many of these intra-Soviet communications deal with merchant ship issues; at least three of these mention the Dzhurma, including an April 1945 transcript describing the suicide of a boatswain named Aleksej Yanovich Zajchenks while the ship was in Portland, Oregon.
26. James Meusholt, “Burrard Dry Dock Co Ltd.” Unpublished manuscript, circa 1970.
27. Paperno.
28. Roger Dingman, Ghost of War: The Sinking of Awu maru and Japanese-American Relations, 1945–1995 (Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1997), 21.
29. Far East Customs Management, “Находкинской таможне 50 лет [Customs house of 50 years]” (May 31, 2001), dvtu.vladivostok.ru/pres3105.htm (December 2002). This article describes the involvement of both Dalstroi and Felix Dzerzhinsky in the mission. Kulu may have also participated, but this is an inference—its schedule of sailing from Portland for Nakhodka matches the profile of some of the other (unnamed) ships in the Gripsholm mission.
30. Dingman, 7.
31. “Военнопленные [Military prisoners],” Невское Время [Neva times] 201 (November 5, 1998), www.pressa.spb.ru/newspapers/nevrem/arts/nevrem-1843-art-14.html (December 2002).
32. John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1999), 32.
33. National Security Agency, “KIM (1945),” The Venona Documents (Washington, D.C.: 1998), www.nsa.gov/docs/venona/docs/Sept45/19_Sept_1945_R5_m1_p1.gif (December 2002). See transcript for September 19, 1945, message 100.

Chapter 11: What Did the West Know, and When Did It Know It?
1. Yarnell epigraph: letter, Harry E. Yarnell, commander of the U.S. Asiatic Fleet, to Admiral W.D. Leahy, Chief of Naval Operations, August 1, 1937, President’s Secretary’s Safe (PSF) Files, Departmental Files/Navy/Oct 36–37, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library. Yarnell’s letter was forwarded to President Roosevelt. 
Arnold epigraph: Otis Hays Jr., Home from Siberia: The Secret Odysseys of Interned American Airmen in World War II (College Station: Texas A & M University Press, 1990), 145–46. Arnold is describing—forty-four years after the event—his exposure to large numbers of Kolyma Gulag prisoners.
2. Sylvester Mora and Piotr Zwierniak, Sprawiedliwość Sowiecka [Soviet justice] (Włochy, 1945).
3. Dark Side of the Moon (London: Faber and Faber, 1946).
4. “Кровью Омытое Советское Золото [Blood-washed Soviet gold],” Социалистический Вестник [Socialist bulletin] 21–22 (December 10, 1945): 579–80. An interview with an anonymous sailor in the Soviet Union.
5. David Y. Dallin and Boris I. Nicolaevsky, Forced Labor in Soviet Russia (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1947), 108–46.
6. Silvester Mora, Kolyma: Gold and Forced Labor in the USSR (Washington, D.C.: Foundation for Foreign Affairs, 1949).
7. Vladimir Petrov, Soviet Gold: My Life as a Slave Laborer in the Siberian Mines (New York: Farrar, Straus, 1949).
8. Elinor Lipper, Eleven Years in Soviet Prison Camps (Chicago: Henry Regnery, 1951).
9. Robert Conquest, Kolyma: The Arctic Death Camps (New York: Viking Press, 1978)
10. H.P. Smolka, 40,000 against the Arctic: Russia’s Polar Empire (New York: William Morrow, 1937).
11. John D. Littlepage and Demaree Bess, In Search of Soviet Gold (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1938), 135.
12. Littlepage, 134–35. It might also be noted that Littlepage evidently believed in every particular the coerced testimonies from the show trials in the mid-1930s.
13. Timothy A. Taracouzio, Soviets in the Arctic (New York: Macmillan, 1938)
14. Terrance Armstrong, The Northern Sea Route: Soviet Exploration of the North East Passage (London: Syndics of the Cambridge University Press, 1952), 62.
15. Constantine Krypton, The Northern Sea Route and the Economy of the Soviet North (London: Methuen, 1956), 79.
16. Navy Department, Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships (Washington, D.C.: Naval Historical Division, 1963).
17. Nadezhda Surovtseva, “Vladivostok Transit,” Till My Tale Is Told, ed. Simeon Vilensky (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999), 184.
18. Steve Kovacs, “1937 Vladivostok Visit” (1999), www.internet-esq.com/_disc1/00000030.htm (December 2002). The contains the transcript of a letter from an officer or crew member of USS Augusta during the visit.
19. Yarnell.
20. The ships are silhouetted in the photograph, which makes it relatively easy to establish their outlines and compare them to known ships operating in the Soviet Far East fleets in the late 1930s, based on U.S. Navy ship recognition handbooks prepared for submarine crews. One ship is mostly likely Svirstroi, Dneprostroi, or Volkhovstroi . The other ship is most likely Nevastroi, Kashirstroi, or Shaturstroi. All were involved in Gulag operations, but only Nevastroi and Dneprostroi are confirmed in this operation in the late 1930s.
21. “700 Believed Dead on Russian Vessel,” New York Times, December 14, 1939, 14.
22. War Department General Staff, Military Intelligence Division (Washington, D.C., 1942), “Feasibility of Supply Route from Alaska to Irkutsk, Siberia via Lena River.” Memo from Col. R.S. Bratton, chief of the division, May 25, 1942.
23. War Department, Office of the Chief of Staff, “Arctic Routes to Russia (Northeast Passage),” August 1, 1942, section 5:2. Map Room file 620, Russia folder: 1942–1944, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library.
24. Robert Huhn Jones, The Roads to Russia: United States Lend-Lease to the Soviet Union (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1969), 210.
25. Records of the War Shipping Administration, Office of the Russian Shipping Area, Lend Lease Voyage Ledgers. National Archives and Records Administration, Record Group [hereafter RG] 248.3.3, boxes 21–35. The War Shipping Administration maintained handwritten records of each voyage. These records show that the Dzhurma in November 1942 sailed directly from Portland to Nagaevo.
26. Jones, 157.
27. Memo, Mr. O’Malley to Mr. Eden, May 31, 1943, President’s Secretary’s File (PSF) Safe Files: Winston Churchill, 1943, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library Digital Archives. In one of those curiosities that abound in this period, it was on board the same USS Augusta that President Roosevelt and Prime Minister Churchill signed the Atlantic Charter in August 1941.
28. Department of the Navy, Office of Naval Intelligence, “Soviet Merships in Pacific—Index of,” July 1, 1944. Navy Department Intelligence Report FT-49-441, folder MR450 (7): Location of Russian Ships 1943–1945, Map Room file, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library.
29. Hays, 61.
30. The author learned of this individual’s death moments after preparing a letter requesting assistance in this project. The letter was retrieved minutes before it would have been collected by the postman.
31. Joseph P. Kerns in a letter to the author, February 27, 2002. Kearns was a staff sergeant on an aircraft interned in the Soviet Union and encountered the Pottenger crew shortly after that crew was in Magadan. They spent the next several months together and were all released from Soviet internment at the same time.
32. Hays.  Table compiled from accounts of individual crews.
33. Hays, 60, 112, 141.
34. Alla Paperno, Тайны и История: Ленд-Лез Тихий Океан [Secrets and history: Lend-Lease Pacific Ocean] (Moscow: Terra-Book Club, 1998).
35. Henry A. Wallace, Soviet Asia Mission (New York: Reynal and Hitchcock, 1944), 35.
36. Owen Lattimore, America and Asia: Problems of Today’s War and the Peace of Tomorrow (Claremont: Claremont Colleges 1943).

Chapter 12: Kolyma Today 
1. Epigraph: “Russia’s Deep Freeze,” U.S. News & World Report, January 25, 1999, 35–37.
2. “Western Mining Firms Secure Licenses for Russian Gold Ground,” Northern Miner 83: 31, 5.
3. Speech given at the Australian Graduate School of Management in Sydney, Australia, in April 2000, attended by the author.
4. “Kolyma Goldfields Private Placement,” Canadian Corporate News, October 12, 1999.
5. Vladimir Dinets, “Hitchhiking to Oimyakon and Beyond” (1999), www.hotcity.com/~vladimir/kolyma.htm (December 2002).

Appendix A: Other Western-Built Ships of the Gulag Fleet 
1. Epigraph: Constantine Krypton, The Northern Sea Route and the Economy of the Soviet North (London: Methuen, 1956), 120.
2. Lloyd’s Register of Shipping: 1935–36 (London: Lloyd’s Register of Shipping, 1936).
3. Lloyd’s List, May 12, 1904. Lloyd’s List was at the time a biweekly publication of the Corporation of Lloyd’s, London.
4. A.E Tapac, Warships of the Imperial Russian Fleet, 1892–1917 (Minsk: Kharbast, 2000).
5. Novikov-Priboy, Tsushima: Grave of a Floating City (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1973), 351.
6. Sergey S. Berezhnoi, Военные корабли и Суда Советского Морского Флота, 1917–1927 [The warships and auxiliary vessels of the Soviet Navy, 1917–1927] (Moscow: Military Publishing House of the Ministries of Defense of the USSR, 1981), 160.
7. This explains the incorrect history of the ship as reported in most registries, such as Lloyd’s. These registries suggest the ship operated as Franche-Comte until 1918, when in fact the ship operated as Anadyr in the Russian and then Soviet navies for most of the period from 1904 to 1918.
8. Alexander Mariev, “Воспоминания [Memoirs],” Уральская Галактика [Ural galaxy] (1999), www.art.uralinfo.ru/literat/UG/ug3/mar_vosp.htm (December 2002). Mariev describes a trip in 1924 aboard Dekabrist.
9. Stanislaw J. Kowalski, “White Auschwitz of Kolyma,” www.gulag.hu/white_auschwitz.htm (December 2002).
10. Shafig Amrakhov, “Транспорт: Держать по створ [Transport: To stay the course]” (1999), press.lukoil.ru/text.phtml?result_artic=438&result=66 (December 2002).
11. Mark Llewellyn Evans, Great World War II Battles in the Arctic (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1999), 100.
12. Bob Ruegg and Arnold Hague, Convoys to Russia: 1941–1945 (Kendal: World Ship Society, 1992), 45.
13. Rudnev, Fiery Flights, 39. A detailed description of the survivors’ plights can be found in Harry C. Hutson, Arctic Interlude: Independent to Russia (Bennington, Vt.: Merriam Press, 1997).
14. “«Декабрист» Приказано Разбомбить [Orders to destroy the Dekabrist],” № Chukotka 16 (May 2000), www.ropnet.ru/ogonyok/win/200016/16-03-03.html (December 2002).
15. David Y. Dallin and Boris I. Nicolaevsky, Forced Labor in Soviet Russia (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1947), 137.
16. Ruegg and Hague, 32.
17. Rudnev, 15.
18. Lloyd’s Register of Shipping: 1935–36.
19. Dallin and Nicolaevsky, 137.
20. Petr Osichanskii, П.П. Куянцев: Я Бы Снова Выбрал Море . . . [P.P. Kuyantsev: I would again choose the Sea . . .] (Vladivostok: Far Eastern Association of Sea Captains, 1998), 48.
21. For the 1940 reference, see Sylvester Mora and Piotr Zwierniak, Sprawiedliwość Sowiecka [Soviet justice] (Włochy, 1945). For the 1952 reference, see Elena Glinka, “The Big Kolyma Streetcar,” Russian Life 31: 3 (March 1998): 40.
22. G. Radnev, “Страшные Отголоски Минувшей Войны [Terrible echoes of the last war],” Zavetniy Krai 1 (1998), www.vld.ru/ppx/Kraj/Zkr1_pub.htm#Dalstroj (December 2002).
23. War Shipping Administration, Lend Lease Voyage Ledgers.
24. There is confusion as to where these ships were actually constructed. Gordon Newell, The H.W. McCurdy Marine History of the Pacific Northwest (Seattle: Superior, 1966), says that the ship were built in Seattle. Detailed records of the Todd Corporation demonstrate that they were the first three hulls started in the new Tacoma facility. Robert Conquest incorrectly reported these ships to have been in Shooter’s Island, New York. See Robert Conquest, Kolyma: The Arctic Death Camps (New York: Viking Press, 1978), 232–33.
25. C. Bradford Mitchell, Every Kind of Shipwork: A History of Todd Shipyards Corporation (New York: Todd Shipyards, 1981), 41.
26. Mitchell, 40.
27. Lloyd’s Register of Shipping: 1921–22 (London: Lloyd’s Register of Shipping, 1922). 
28. U.S. Maritime Commission, Division of Operations 1917–1949, Vessel Movement Cards for Chebaulip, National Archives and Records Administration, RG 178 B190 079/18/04, box 5.
29. Navy Department, Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships (Washington, D.C.: Naval Historical Division, 1963).
30. U.S. Maritime Commission, Vessel Movement Cards for Chebaulip.
31. Lloyd’s Register of Shipping: 1935–36 (London: Lloyd’s Register of Shipping, 1936).
32. David Nordlander, Capital of the Gulag: Magadan in the Early Stalin Era, 1929–1941 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1997), 101.
33. Lloyd’s Register of Shipping: 1921–22 and subsequent years.
34. Navy Department, Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships.
35. U.S. Maritime Commission, Division of Operations 1917–1949, Vessel Movement Cards for Bellingham. National Archives and Records Administration, RG 178 B190 079/18/04, box 3.
36. Jürg Meister, Soviet Warships of the Second World War (London: Macdonald and Jane’s, 1977), 288.
37. Aleksandr I. Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago: 1918–1956 (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1998), vol. 1, 581.
38. Lloyd’s Register of Shipping: 1921–22 and subsequent years.
39. U.S. Maritime Commission, Division of Operations 1917–1949, Vessel Movement Cards for Puget Sound, National Archives and Records Administration, RG 178 B190 079/18/04, box 19.
40. L.N. Garusova, “Российские-американские Региональные Отношения на Дальнем Востоке: История и Поток [Russian-American regional relations on the Far East: History and present],” abc.vvsu.ru/Books/m_rosamo/page0008.asp (July 2001).
41. Ivan Ivanovich Rodionova, “Хронология [Chronology],” Russian Air Force (2001) (www.AIRFORCE.ru/history/chronology/1930.htm (December 2002).
42. W.H. Mitchell, W.H. Sawyer, and L.A. Sawyer, British Standard Ships of World War I (London: Journal of Commerce and Shipping Telegraph, 1968), 10.
43. Victor Kravchenko, I Choose Justice (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1950), 291.
44. U.S. Maritime Commission, Vessel Movement Cards for Puget Sound.
45. Sergei Gavrilov, “Трагедия Буксира Кит [Tragedy of the tug Kit],” Новая Камчатская Правда [New Kamchatka truth], October 18, 2001.
46. Jury Vedernikov, “Хроники Кораблекрушений В Российских Водах Дальнего Востока [Chronicle of shipwrecks in the Russian waters of the Far East],” Владивосток [Vladivostok], May 25, 1996, www.vld.ru/ppx/Katastr/Cronics.htm (December 2002).
47. Meister, 267.
48. Lloyd’s Register of Shipping: 1921–22 and subsequent years.
49. Lloyd’s Register of Shipping: 1935–36.
50. For the 1932 reference, see Nordlander, 101. For the 1938 reference, see Solzhenitsyn, 581.
51. War Shipping Administration, Office of the Russian Shipping Area, Lend Lease Voyage Ledgers, National Archives and Records Administration, Record Group 248.3.3, boxes 21–35. The War Shipping Administration maintained handwritten records of each voyage.
52. Lloyd’s Register of Shipping: 1921–22 and subsequent years.
53. U.S. Maritime Commission, Division of Operations 1917–1949, Vessel Movement Cards for Aledo, National Archives and Records Administration, RG 178 B190 079/18/04, box 1.
54. Lloyd’s Register of Shipping: 1935–36.
55. Kravchenko, 290–91.
56. Petr Osichanskii, 38.
57. Roger W. Jordan, The World’s Merchant Fleets 1939: The Particulars and Wartime Fates of 6,000 Ships (London: Chatham, 1999), 577.
58. Syd Heal, e-mail message to the Marine History Information Exchange Group (February 22, 2002).
59. G. Rudnev, Огненные Рейсы [Fiery flights] (Vladivostok: Dal’nevostochnoe, 1975), 6–8.
60. General Maltby’s dispatches, as cited in Alan Birch and Martin Cole, Captive Christmas: The Battle for Hong Kong—December 1941 (Hong Kong: Heinemann Asia, 1979), 100.
61. Office of Chief of Naval Operations, ONI-208-J (Revised): Japanese Merchant Ships Recognition Manual (Washington, D.C.: Intelligence Division, 1944), 255.
62. Robert J. Cressman, The Official Chronology of the U.S. Navy in World War II (Washington, D.C.: Naval Historical Center, 1995). Also available online at www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USN/USN-Chron/USN-Chron-1945.html (December 2002).
63. Cressman.
64. Rudnev, 8.
65. U.S. Maritime Commission, Division of Operations 1917–1949, Vessel Movement Cards for Galesburg, National Archives and Records Administration, RG 178 B190 079/18/04, box 10.
66. Lloyd’s Register of Shipping: 1935–36.
67. Kravchenko, 290–91.
68. War Shipping Administration, Lend Lease Voyage Ledgers.
69. William L. Worden, Cargoes: Matson’s First Century in the Pacific (Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii, 1981), 162.
70. Soviet Merchant Ships 1945–1968, 219. There is opportunity for confusion here, as another ship by the same name was constructed in Staten Island, New York, in 1918 and acquired by the Soviet Union. That ship was sunk in 1941. For the reference the earlier ship sunk by air attack, see Nikolay Mihin, “Венки на волне: Документальные очерки [Wreaths on a wave: Documentary sketches]” (1998), lib.ru/PROZA/MIHINN/venki.txt (December 2002).
71. Okupatsioonide Repressiivpoliitika Uurimise Riikiik Komisjon, “The Soviet Prison Camps in Extreme North and Estonian Political Prisoners in Kolyma,” www.okupatsioon.ee/trykised/oll/oll_kolyma_vang1.html (December 2002).
72. Valery Chymakov, “Кому На Чукотке Жить Хорошо [Who on Chukotka can live well],” № Chukotka (December 1999), www.ropnet.ru/ogonyok/win/199990/90-46-49.html (December 2002).
73. Memorial (Kursk), “Сообщение Антона Иосифовича Миронова [Anton Iosifovicha Mironova’s message]” (1990), www.memorial.krsk.ru/svidet/mmiron.htm (December 2002).
74. Sergey S. Berezhnoi, Советские Суда и Предоставляют Ленд-Лез [Soviet ships and vessels of Lend-Lease] (St. Petersburg: Velen Publishing House, 1994), 278–79.
75. Berezhnoi, Soviet Ships and Vessels of Lend Lease, 278–79, lists the ship as having been broken up in the 1950s. Andrew Toppan reports in “Newport News Shipbuilding & Drydock Production Record” (2001), www.hazegray.org/shipbuilding/nnsb1.htm (December 2002), that the ship was still afloat in 1985.
76. Interview with Oleg Dejev, October 4, 2002. Dejev, a former fleet electrician in Vladivostok, reports seeing the Balkhash afloat in the Golden Horn in the mid-1990s prior to his emigration to the United States.
77. Skinner & Eddy v. United States, 265 U.S. 86, 44 S.Ct. 446 (1924).
78. Newell, 281. 
79. Ibid., 377.
80. Meister, 291.
81. Office of Chief of Naval Operations, Intelligence Division, ONI-B2: Soviet Merchant Shipping Pacific (Washington, D.C.: Navy Department, July 1943). Available through National Archives and Records Administration, RG 38 370 13/17/01, boxes 347–48, entry 98A: Intelligence Division, Confidential Reports of Naval Attaches, serial 58-43.
82. Rudnev, Fiery Flights, 61.
83. Zhores A. Medvedev, “Stalin and the Atomic Gulag,” Spokesman Books (2001): 105, www.spokesmanbooks.com/spokesman/spksmn_69.htm (December 2002)
84. Okupatsioonide Repressiivpoliitika Uurimise Riikiik Komisjon.
85. Memorial (Kursk), “Сообщение Юстины Николаевны Нагляк [Nikolaevich Naglyak Ustina’s message],” www.memorial.krsk.ru/svidet/mnagl.htm (December 2002).
86. U.S. Department of Defense, Defense Prisoner of War/Missing Personnel Office, “The Gulag Study” (2001), www.dtic.mil/dpmo/special/gulag_study.pdf (December 2002). This is a compilation of reports on the potential presence of U.S. servicemen in Gulag camps, prepared by the Joint Commission Support Directorate of the United States and Russia.
87. Berezhnoi, Soviet Ships and Vessels of Lend Lease, 289–90.
88. Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Research and Reports, Status of Soviet-Held U.S. Lend-Lease Vessels—S-2278 (April 18, 1967): 4, www.foia.ucia.gov (December 2002). Formerly classified report declassified 23 January 2001.
89. Lloyd’s Register of Shipping: 1935–36.
90. Newell, 415.
91. Roger W. Jordan, 408.
92. Berezhnoi, Soviet Ships and Vessels of Lend Lease, 268.
93. Okupatsioonide Repressiivpoliitika Uurimise Riikiik Komisjon.
94. Central Intelligence Agency, Status of Soviet-Held US Lend-Lease Vessels, 2.
95. Meister, 263.
96. Peter Thompson, “Liberty Ships: Master List of Names,” www.andrew.cmu.edu/~pt/liberty/liberty1.html (December 2002).
97. Berezhnoi, Soviet Ships and Vessels of Lend Lease, 325–26.
98. Russell Working, “Odessa Last Breadth of Soviet Liberty,” Moscow Times, September 29, 2000. See also Alla Paperno, Тайны и История: Ленд-Лез Тихий Океан [Secrets and history: Lend-Lease Pacific Ocean] (Moscow: Terra-Book Club, 1998),144–45. Paperno’s sources include the ship’s log.
99. At the time of writing in mid-2002, the fate of Odessa is unclear. The owners, Dalmoreprodukt, are in bankruptcy proceedings, and Odessa has been listed for sale as scrap.
100. Thompson and Lloyd’s Register of Shipping: 1935–36.
101. Okupatsioonide Repressiivpoliitika Uurimise Riikiik Komisjon.
102. Berezhnoi, Soviet Ships and Vessels of Lend Lease, 310–11.
103. Thompson and Lloyd’s Register of Shipping: 1935–36.
104. Memorial (Kursk), “Сообщение Михаила Васильевича Иванова [Biography of Ivanov Mikhail Vasilievich]” (2001), www.memorial.krsk.ru/svidet/mmivan.htm (December 2002).
105. Okupatsioonide Repressiivpoliitika Uurimise Riikiik Komisjon.
106. Berezhnoi, Soviet Ships and Vessels of Lend Lease, 315–16.
107. Thompson (2001) and Lloyd’s Register of Shipping: 1935–36.
108. Meister, 290.
109. Okupatsioonide Repressiivpoliitika Uurimise Riikiik Komisjon.
110. Berezhnoi, Soviet Ships and Vessels of Lend Lease, 318.
111. Lloyd’s Register of Shipping: 1935–36.
112. Dallin and Nicolaevsky, 137.
113. War Shipping Administration, Lend Lease Voyage Ledgers.
114. Lloyd’s Register of Shipping: 1953–54 (London: Lloyd’s Register of Shipping, 1954).
115. War Shipping Administration, Lend Lease Voyage Ledgers.
116. Lloyd’s Register of Shipping: 1935–36.
117. David Woodward, The Russians at Sea (London: William Kimber, 1965), 204.
118. Silvester Mora, Kolyma: Gold and Forced Labor in the USSR (Washington, D.C.: Foundation for Foreign Affairs, 1949), 15.
119. Roger W. Jordan, 495.
120. Meister, 266.

Appendix B: Soviet-Built Gulag Ships
1. Display quota: I.D. Spasskogo, ed., История Отечественного Судостроения: в Пяти Томах [History of domestic shipbuilding: In five volumes] (St. Petersburg: Shipbuilding Press, 1996), vol., 4, 68.
2. Aleksandr G. Kozlov, “От Истории Колымских Лагерей: 1932–37 [From the history of the Kolyma camps: 1932–37],” Краеведческие Записки [Notes of the Museum of Regional History] 17 (1991): 61.
3. See for example, Spasskogo, 68–69.
4. Soviet Merchant Ships 1945–1968 (Homewell: Kenneth Mason, 1969), 234.
5. William Barr, “First Convoy to the Kolyma: The Soviet Northeast Polar Expedition, 1932–33,” Polar Record 19: 123 (1979): 563–72.
6. Marine News, July 1974. This is the monthly publication of the World Ship Society.
7. The trips are well documented in the Soviet literature of Arctic voyages of the 1930s.
8. Barr, 564.
9. Lloyd’s Confidential Index—Foreign 1938 (London: Corporation of Lloyd’s at Lloyd’s, June 1, 1939).
10. Dallin and Nicolaevsky, 128.
11. Yevgenov, “Возвращение Судов Северо-восточной Экспедиции года 1932 [The return of the ships of the 1932 northeastern expedition],” Арктический Института Бюллетень [Arctic Institute bulletin] 5 (1933): 118–24.
12. Soviet Merchant Ships 1945–1968, 231.
13. Ibid.
14. Ibid.
15. Barr, 563.
16. The trips are well documented in the 1930s Soviet literature on the Northern Sea Route.
17. Dallin and Nicolaevsky, 137.
18. Bob Ruegg and Arnold Hague, Convoys to Russia: 1941–1945 (Kendal: World Ship Society, 1992).
19. Soviet Merchant Ships 1945–1968, 231.
20. “Беспрецедентное Рейс Парохода Рабочи [Unprecedented voyage of the steamship Rabochii],” Арктический Института Бюллетень [Arctic Institute bulletin] 10 (1935): 342.
21. Conquest, Kolyma: The Arctic Death Camps, 222. Conquest states that this trip occurred in 1933, but this is highly unlikely. Voyages along the Northern Sea Route were the subject of considerable coverage, and no such voyage has been identified.
22. Gakkel’, “Арктическая Навигация 1937 Года [Arctic navigation 1937],” Проблемы Арктика [Arctic problems] 1 (1938): 117–34.
23. Gerald Howson, Arms for Spain: The Untold Story of the Spanish Civil War (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1998), 133.
24. Varlam Shalamov, Kolyma Tales (London: Penguin Books, 1994), 175. [@endN]
ompany, 1951), 92-4.
IK: Victor Kravchenko, I Choose Justice (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1950), 288-91.  Kravchenko relays the story of Ivan Krevsoun, a passenger aboard Svirstroi who also witnessed Volkhovstroi and Shaturstroi.
IP: Zhores A. Medvedev, "Stalin and the Atomic Gulag," Spokesman Books (2001): 105, www.spokesmanbooks.com/spokesman/spksmn_69.htm (December 2002).  This article cites an unpublished letter from I.P. Samokhvalov.
GL: Elena Glinka, “The Big Kolyma Streetcar,” Russian Life 31:3 (March 1998): 40.
GN: Nadezhda Grankina, “ Notes by Your Contemporary”, Till My Tale Is Told, ed. Simeon Vilensky (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999), 138-39.
KA: Sylvester Mora and Piotr Zwierniak, Sprawiedliwość Sowiecka [Soviet justice] (Włochy, 1945).  The book reports on the personal testimony of a passenger identified only as “K.A.”
KO: E.E. Starobinskij, “Менеджмент и психология в бизнесе: Королев С.П. [Management and psychology in business:  Korolev, S.P.]” (2001), <http://www.ukrinter.com/ssart_board_view.asp?ID=17&MID=4> (January 2002).
LG: “Восстание троцкистов на Колыме [Troskyite insurrection in Kolyma],” www.gulag.ru/page/zk/v_Trozk/v_trozk.htm (December 2002).  Manuscript detailing the transport of L.I. Girshik to the Kolyma Gulag.
LR: Larissa Ratushnaya, “Этюды О Колымских Днях [Essays about days in Kolyma]” (1999), www.art.uralinfo.ru/LITERAT/Ural/Ural_7_99/Ural_07_99_08.htm (December 2002).
MS: Michael Solomon, Magadan (New York: Vertex, 1971), 84-8 and 92-7.
NS: Nadezhda Surovtseva, “ Vladivostok Transit,” Till My Tale Is Told, ed. Simeon Vilensky (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999), 184.
NV: “Военнопленные [Military prisoners],” Невское Время [Neva times], November 5, 1998, www.pressa.spb.ru/newspapers/nevrem/arts/nevrem-1843-art-14.html (December 2002).
ON: Memorial (Kursk), “Сообщение Юстины Николаевны Нагляк [Nikolaevich Naglyak Ustina’s message],” www.memorial.krsk.ru/svidet/mnagl.htm (December 2002).
RL: Raul Fumagali, “My Polish Friend: Amazing Life and Adventures,” www.thelatinmass.com/lopacki.html (December 2002).  This manuscript relays the experiences of Richard Lopacki in the Kolyma camps.
SG: Novokuznetsk City Study of Local Lore Museum, “Сергеев Александр Григорьевич [Sergey Alexander Grigor’evich]” (1995), www.kuzbass.ru/nkz/stalinsk/sergeev.htm (December 2002).
SK: Stanislaw J. Kowalski, “White Auschwitz of Kolyma,” www.gulag.hu/white_auschwitz.htm (December 2002).
SL: Marion Sloma, “Lasciate Ogni Speranza,” www.najmici.org/kolyma/ksiazka11.htm (December 2002).
SO: Memorial (Kursk), “Сообщение Михаила Николаевича Соболева [Michael Nikolaevicha Soboleva’s message],” www.memorial.krsk.ru/svidet/mnsobol.htm (December 2002).  This is the biography of Nikolai Fyodorovich Soboleva.
SV: “Биография Нины Владимировны Сароевы (Biography of Nina Vladimirovna Saroeva),”<http://www.sakharov-center.ru/adcs/bio/98.htm> (January 2001).
TL: Zhores A. Medvedev, "Stalin and the Atomic Gulag," Spokesman Books (2001): 105, www.spokesmanbooks.com/spokesman/spksmn_69.htm (December 2002).  
TS: Thomas Sgovio, Dear America (New York, Partners’ Press Inc., 1979), page 138. 
VN: A.G. Kozlov, “Кого Карал НКВД? [Who Punished the NKVD]” <http://www.kolyma.ru/magadan/history/repres.shtml> (January 2002).  This citation refers to Vasili Antonovich Noblin and places the date as July 1931.  However, this is likely a mistake as the first shipments did not arrive until 1932.
VP: Vladimir Petrov, Soviet Gold: My Life as a Slave Laborer in the Siberian Mines (New York: Farrar, Straus, 1949), 148-157, 403-407.
VS: Varlam Shalamov, Kolyma Tales (London: Penguin Books, 1994), 175
YM: Yuri Illarionovich Moiseenko, “Поэзия Каторги [Poetry Katorgi],” www.MTU-NET.ru/rayner/avtorskaja/poes_katorgi11.htm (December 2002).
23. There is some evidence to suggest that both Kolyma and Sovietskaya Gavan served nonetheless in some capacity with Dal’stroi. Historian John McCannon makes reference to a fleet of seven oceangoing ships operated by Dal’stroi, five of which are those identified by Conquest. For example, at 1,528 gross tons, Kolyma was a small ship, only one-sixth the size of Felix Dzerzhinsky. Given the relatively large size of the ships in the core Dal’stroi fleet—an average of 6,800 gross tons—the much smaller Kolyma seems out of place.
24. Terrance Armstrong, The Northern Sea Route: Soviet Exploration of the North East Passage (London: Syndics of the Cambridge University Press, 1952), 24.
25. Lloyd’s Register of Shipping: 1935–36 (London: Lloyd’s Register of Shipping, 1936).
26. Peter Horensma, The Soviet Arctic (London: Routledge, 1991), 56.
27. Paperno. The captains of Dalstroi, Dzhurma, and Felix Dzerzhinsky were also arrested, and the first two were shot. 
28. Conquest, Kolyma: The Arctic Death Camps, 47–48.
29. Aleksandr I. Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago: 1918-1956 (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1998), vol. 1, 535. The individual quoted possibly overestimated the number of prisoners being moved each month.
30. Gakkel’, “Арктическая Навигация 1937 Года [Arctic Navigation 1937],” Проблемы Арктика [Arctic Problems] 1 (1938): 117–34. Given the routing, it is unlikely this specific voyage was in support of Gulag operations.
31. McCannon, 172. NarkomVodTrans was also affected by the changes. N.M. Ianson, the former director of NarkomVodTrans and later deputy head of Glavsevmorput, was himself arrested in the 1937 purges and sentenced to death.
32. Dallin and Nicolaevsky, 137. There is potential for confusion of Komsomolsk with Komsomol, another Soviet merchant ship. Komsomol was built in 1932 in the Soviet Union and sunk at sea in December 1936 by Nationalist forces during the Spanish Civil War. It was employed in shipping cargo to Kolyma in the early 1930s, but there are no records of its having carried forced laborers. The Komsomolsk was built in 1936 in the United Kingdom as a specialized Arctic timber carrier and is the one referred to here.
33. Paperno, 229–30.
34. The exact number may never be known, but an analysis of Soviet merchant ships operating in 1939 and their subsequent fates indicates that at least sixty of these ships were lost in 1941, another forty in 1942, and about twenty in 1943. The actual number is probably much higher.
35. Material about Lend Lease in the following paragraphs is from Robert Huhn Jones, The Roads to Russia: United States Lend-Lease to the Soviet Union (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1969).
36. Office of Chief of Naval Operations, ONI-208R: Russian Merchant Vessels (Washington, D.C.: Intelligence Division, December 20, 1942). As described in the appendices, Dekabrist was sunk by German Ju-88 aircraft of unit I/KG30 on November 4, 1942, during Operation FB, the disastrous attempt to send merchant ships to Russia without escort. Kiev was torpedoed and sunk by U-435 on April 13, 1942, in convoy QP-10.
37. War Shipping Administration, Office of the Russian Shipping Area, Lend Lease Voyage Ledgers, National Archives and Records Administration, Record Group 248.3.3, boxes 21–35. The War Shipping Administration maintained handwritten records of each voyage.
38. G. Rudnev, Огненные Рейсы [Fiery flights] (Vladivostok: Dal’nevostochnoe Book Publishing House, 1975), 15.
39. While Soviet sources and maritime registers report that Svirstroi was sunk, intelligence reports during World War II suggest it was captured. See Office of Chief of Naval Operations, ONI-208-J (Revised): Japanese Merchant Ships Recognition Manual (Washington, D.C.: Intelligence Division, 1944), 255.
40. Rudnev, 61. 
41. Meister, 288, and P. Mulder, De Schepeu v. de KNSM 1856–1981 (Amsterdam: Erato, 1983).
42. Petr Osichanskii, П.П. Куянцев: Я Бы Снова Выбрал Море . . . [P.P. Kuyantsev: I would again choose the sea . . .] (Vladivostok: Far Eastern Association of Sea Captains, 1998), 16–23.
43. In addition to the war losses, Rabochii, Suchan, and Indigirka were lost in accidents before the war, and Dalstroi just afterward.
44. Zhores A. Medvedev, “Stalin and the Atomic Gulag,” Spokesman Books (2001): 105
45. Glinka, 40.
46. Varlam Shalamov, Kolyma Tales (London: Penguin Books, 1994), 175.
47. Nogin is reported in an unpublished letter cited by Zhores A. Medvedev. Odessa is reported by Russell Working, “Odessa Last Breadth of Soviet Liberty,” Moscow Times, 29 September 2000. The other ships are cited by Okupatsioonide Repressiivpoliitika Uurimise Riikiik Komisjon. There is an opportunity for confusion regarding the ship Kamenets-Podolsk—there were two such ships in the Soviet merchant fleet around this time. The first was constructed in 1915 in Britain and was sunk by German bombers off Elkjotshar on August 30, 1941, as documented by Meister, 290. This reference is to the ship constructed in 1944 in the United States and formerly known as the Robert S. Abbot. 
48. U.S. Department of Defense, Defense Prisoner of War/Missing Personnel Office, Memoirs (Washington, D.C.: February 29, 2000), www.dtic.mil/dpmo/special/memoirs.pdf (December 2002). This document contains witness testimony submitted to the U.S. Russia Joint Commission on POWs/MIAs.
49. U.S. Department of Defense, Defense Prisoner of War/Missing Personnel Office, The Gulag Study (Washington, D.C.: 2001), www.dtic.mil/dpmo/special/gulag_study.pdf (December 2002). This is a compilation of reports on the potential presence of U.S. servicemen in Gulag camps, prepared by the Joint Commission Support Directorate of the U.S. and Russia.
50. D.M. Long, The Soviet Merchant Fleet: Its Growth, Strategy, Strength and Weaknesses 1920–1999 (London: Lloyd’s of London Press, 1986), 11.
51. Horensma, 121.
52. Working. 


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